Open Veterinary Journal, (2026), Vol. 16(6): 3660-3670

Research Article

10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i6.37

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Comparative evaluation of dome trap designs versus standard nzi traps for fly control in semi-extensive cattle farming systems across Timor’s different ecological zones Island, Indonesia

Aven Bernard Oematan¹, Raden Wisnu Nurcahyo^2*, Joko Prastowo², Dwi Priyowidodo² and Gunawan Gunawan^1,3

¹Doctoral Program of Sain Veteriner, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

²Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

³Research Center of Public Health and Nutrition, National Research and Inovation Agency, Cibinong, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: Raden Wisnu Nurcahyo. Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Email: wisnu-nc [at] ugm.ac.id

Submitted: 15/12/2025 Revised: 14/04/2026 Accepted: 24/04/2026 Published: 11/06/2026

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Abstract

Background: Flies are important vectors transmitting various pathogens in livestock systems. Effective, economical, and environmentally sustainable fly control strategies are needed, particularly in semi-extensive cattle farming systems.

Aim: This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of three dome trap designs compared with the standard Nzi trap in different ecological zones.

Methods: Field experiments were conducted in three ecological zones of Timor Island, Indonesia (coastal, lowland, and highland) in May 2023. Four trap types (Dome 1, Dome 2, Dome 3, and Nzi) were deployed near cattle, and fly collections were performed at 2-hour intervals. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD test.

Results: A total of 8,538 flies representing eight species were collected, dominated by Musca domestica (68.39%). The coastal zone had the highest abundance. Dome 3 showed the highest capture numerically; however, no significant differences were observed among trap types (p=0.053). Fly activity peaked at mid-morning and decreased in the afternoon. Environmental factors such as elevation, temperature, and humidity influenced fly abundance.

Conclusion: Although Dome 3 showed higher numerical performance, all trap types demonstrated comparable effectiveness. These findings provide baseline data for improving fly monitoring and control strategies in semi-extensive livestock systems.

Keywords: Diptera, Dome trap, Fly monitoring vector control, Nzi trap, Semi-extensive grazing.

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Introduction

Genetic and environmental factors, including parasitic infestations, influence livestock production, which can significantly reduce productivity and cause economic losses (Cilek and Tekin, 2005; Cilek, 2009). Dipteran flies constitute one of the most significant arthropod pest groups affecting livestock. Production systems globally serve as mechanical and biological vectors for numerous pathogenic organisms, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths (Abbas and Hafez, 2021; Geden et al., 2021; Amjad et al., 2024). Semi-extensive cattle farming systems represent the predominant livestock management approach in tropical and subtropical regions, and fly populations can be reached economically damaging levels, causing direct production losses through reduced feed intake and impaired weight gain, decreased milk production, and increased veterinary costs (Miranda et al., 2021; Boonsaen et al., 2024). The economic impact of fly infestations on cattle production is substantial, with annual losses exceeding USD 2.2 billion in the United States alone, whereas global losses are projected to reach USD 6 billion annually (Duvallet, 2022; Andrew P. Griffith et al., 2022; Altosid, 2025). In developing countries, where semi-extensive systems predominate, limited access to modern pest management technologies and insufficient veterinary infrastructure often exacerbate these impacts (Geden, 2005; Hogsette and Foil, 2018; Rahmawati 2025). Temporary fly control strategies include multiple approaches, including rotational grazing management, mechanical methods, biological control agents, and chemical interventions (Gerry et al., 2020; Koala et al., 2022; Abbas et al., 2023; Ahmed et al., 2024; Getahun et al., 2024; González et al., 2024). Among these options, trap-based monitoring and control systems are increasingly recognized as economically viable, environmentally sustainable, and operational solutions for livestock producers (Iaea, 2024; Hulwani et al., 2025). Mechanical trapping methods offer several advantages, including reduced environmental impact and the absence of chemical residues in animal products, minimal pest resistance development, and cost-effectiveness for resource-limited farming operations (Mihok, 2002; Abubakar et al., 2018). The Nzi trap, which was originally developed in Kenya for tsetse fly control, has consistently effectiveness across diverse geographical regions and climatic conditions for capturing Dipteran species (Meyer and Hall 1996; Oloo et al., 2014; Mihok). This trap design incorporates the optimal color combinations of blue and black fabrics that exploit the target fly’s visual attraction mechanisms species (Otabil et al., 2018 ; Phetcharat et al., 2024 ). The blue-black color scheme mimics the visual characteristics of the preferred host animals, while the silhouette of the trap resembles the shapes of livestock that naturally attract blood-feeding flies (Kogan, 1998; Rodríguez-Pérez et al., 2013). Recent research has expanded our understanding of fly behavior and sensory perception. Visual stimulus plays a crucial role in host-seeking behavior (Santer, 2014; Torr et al., 2018; Birkett et al., 2019; Rayaisse et al., 2020; Tirados et al., 2023; Santer and Allen, 2024; Santaera et al., 2025). Ultraviolet radiation influences fly activity patterns, with many species using ultraviolet radiation wavelengths to differentiate potential hosts from background vegetation (Suarsa et al., 2024; Shahanaz et al., 2025). Peak fly activity typically coincides with optimal UV intensities during midday hours, while extreme heat stress drives flies to seek shelter on host animals to avoid desiccation (Taylor et al., 2012; Koala et al., 2022). Despite the proven effectiveness of Nzi traps in various ecosystems, limited research has been conducted by comparing alternative trap designs specifically optimized for semi-extensive grazing. Systems in semi-arid tropical environments (Machtinger et al., 2021; Ickowicz et al., 2022). The unique ecological characteristics of Timor Island, including its semi-arid climate, topographical features, and traditional livestock management practices, present distinct challenges and opportunities for developing improved fly control technologies (Wang et al., 2019; Department of Agriculture, 2024). The development of novel trap designs requires the consideration of multiple factors, including construction materials, geometric configuration, color combinations, operational durability, and economic feasibility for smallholder farmers, particularly because flies are important mechanical vectors of animal and human pathogens (Graczyk et al., 2001; Baldacchino et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019; Rochon et al., 2021; Department of Agriculture, 2024). Dome-shaped trap configurations offer potential advantages, including enhanced visual attraction. from multiple angles, improved structural stability under windy conditions, and simplified construction Requirements using locally available materials (Samuel et al., 2015; Zhu et al., 2016). This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of three dome trap designs compared with the standard Nzi trap for capturing flies in livestock environments. The findings of this study are expected to provide useful information for the development of practical and cost-effective methods for monitoring fly populations in livestock production systems

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Materials and Methods

Study area and selection of sites

The research was conducted in May 2023 across three representative ecological zones of Timor Island, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia, namely the Central (Kupang), Lowland (North Timor District), and Highland (Central South Timor) zones. Study sites were strategically selected to encompass the major ecological gradients present on the island, representing typical semi-extensive cattle farming environments found throughout the Indonesian archipelago (Hilmiati et al., 2024).

Coastal Zone (Kupang District): Three villages were selected, including Tanah Putih (10°19'51.7"S, 123°44'38.7"E, 75 m elevation), Tanah Merah (10°6'43.2"S, 123°43'58.8"E, 46 m elevation), and Nitneo (10°15'22.69"S, 123°33'26.14"E, 102 m elevation). This zone is sandy soils, seasonal rainfall patterns (800–1200 mm annually), and temperatures ranging from 24°C to 32°C. The vegetation consists primarily of savanna grasslands dominated by the Imperata Cylindrica, Themeda triandra, and scattered Tamarindus indica. Lowland Zone (Central North Timor District): Sampling sites included Maubeli (9°29'25.247"S, 124°29'43.208"E, elevation of 366 m), Sekon (9°28'8.4"S, 124°38'2.4"E, elevation of 331 m), and Fatoin (9°27'3.6"S, 124°42'0.0"E, 350 m elevation). This region experiences slightly higher rainfall (1000 mm–1400 mm annually) and more moderate temperatures (22°C–30°C). The landscape features rolling hills with mixed grassland-woodland vegetation, including Eucalyptus alba, Melaleuca cajuputi, and Indigenous grasses. Highland Zone (Central South Timor District): Noemeto (9°54'36"S, 124°16'4"E, 731 m elevation), Kesetnana (9°51'28.8"S, 124°14'38.4"E, 890 m elevation), and Oelbubuk (9°46'23.3"S, 124°16'53"E, elevation: 1051 m). Highland areas receive higher precipitation with cooler temperatures (18°C–26°C) and diverse vegetation, including Casuarina junghuhniana, Schleichera oleosa, and improved pasture species. This zone is characterized by semi-arid conditions with distinct seasonal rainfall patterns and temperature variations that strongly influence vegetation structure and livestock management practices (Robertson et al., 2009). The geographical and environmental characteristics of all study sites are summarized as follows, as provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Study site characteristics across the ecological zones of the East Nusa Tenggara Province Indonesia.

Trap design and construction

Nzi trap configuration

The standard Nzi trap was constructed using blue-black cotton following established protocols. fabric (0.5 m × 1.0 m) and white mosquito netting (1.0 m × 1.0 m) (Mihok, 2002). The framework consisted of one central support pole and three external poles with six tension points to maintain trap stability and ensure optimal fabric positioning. The blue-black fabric component was positioned to maximize visual contrast, while the collection chamber used fine mesh to retain scaptured flies while allowing adequate airflow. Comparative summary of the structure Specifications of the dome and Nzi traps are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Technical specifications and dimensional parameters of the designs of dome traps compared with the standard Nzi trap.

Design of dome traps

This study developed three dome trap variations by incorporating attractive color combinations (blue, black, white) into novel geometric configurations to enhance capture efficiency.

Dome 1 specifications

Blue fabric panel (90 cm × 65 cm), black fabric section (90 cm × 45 cm), Apex angle, 40°; radius, 78 cm; slant height, 85 cm. Front barrier panel: blue fabric (75 cm length × 35 cm in height). This design emphasizes compact construction suitable for space constraints.

Dome 2 configuration

Blue fabric component (90 cm × 100 cm), black section (90 cm × 30 cm), White mesh panel (90 cm × 20 cm), apex angle 40°, radius 78 cm, and slant height 85 cm. Front barrier: Blue fabric (70 cm length × 30 cm). This intermediate design balances the material requirements with enhanced visual attraction.

Dome 3 design

blue fabric panel (75 cm × 50 cm), black fabric section (75 cm × 50 cm), white Mesh component (75 cm × 20 cm), apex angle 40°, radius 100 cm, and slant height 100 cm. Front barrier Panel: 100 cm length × 25 cm height. This large design maximizes the visual target area and internal capture volume.

All dome traps incorporated dual entrance systems with blue fabric paired front barriers, panels, and complementary non-barred openings. The support structure comprised one central pole and four external support posts to maintain the dome shape and structural integrity in the field conditions. Precision-cut fabric pieces are sewn to form a hemispherical collection of chambers with strategically positioned entry points. A schematic cross-sectional view of the dome Trap design is presented in Figure 1 to clarify the structural components and entry system.

Fig. 1. Cross-section of a dome-type fly trap the trap consists of a ½-inch PVC central pole with a 6-hole ½-inch PVC connector supporting a ⅝-inch PVC frame. The upper section is a cone of white tulle, while the sides feature 75 cm-high panels of white tulle, black fabric, and blue fabric. Overall dimensions: height, 175 cm; base width, 170 cm (segments, 20 cm + 50 cm + 50 cm).

Field deployment and data collection

Traps were deployed simultaneously at each study location with standard spacing (minimum 50 Meters between the traps) to minimize the interference effects. Positioning relative to the livestock maintained consistent 5–10-meter distances, with Nzi trap entrances oriented toward cattle and dome traps. Utilized omnidirectional entry points. All traps were installed at sunrise (approximately 06:00 local time) and remained operational until sunset (approximately 18:00 local time). Fly collections were conducted at five sampling intervals per day (08:00, 10:00, 12:00, 14:00, and 16:00), resulting in 15 sampling observations per trap during the 3-day deployment period.

Fly collection followed systematic 2-hour intervals beginning at 08:00 and continuing through 16:00 local time. During each collection period, captured flies were carefully transferred to labeled containers. Using soft forceps to minimize specimen damage. Immediate preservation using 70% ethanol to ensure morphological integrity for subsequent identification.

Species identification and morphological analysis

Taxonomic identification employs standardized morphological keys developed for the Southeast region Asian Diptera, with a particular emphasis on livestock-associated species (Indonesian Center for Animal Research and Development, 2024). Primary diagnostic features included wing venation patterns, antennal structure, mouthpart morphology, body size and coloration, and reproductive organ characteristics where applicable. Specimens were examined using a stereomicroscope (Olympus SZ61, 10–40× magnification) with fiber optic illumination systems to enhance the visualization of morphological details. Digital photography. Documented key diagnostic features for verification and quality control. Identification accuracy was confirmed through cross-referencing with authenticated specimen collections. Consultation with regional taxonomic experts.

Statistical analysis and data management

Quantitative analyses were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the trap and describe the temporal activity patterns of the flies. Differences in fly capture among trap types (Dome 1, Dome 2, Dome 3, and Nzi trap) were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a significance level set at α=0.05. When significant differences were detected, Tukey’s honest significant difference post hoc test was applied for pairwise comparisons among trap types. We examined temporal activity patterns by comparing fly captures across different sampling times. Descriptive statistics, including the mean and standard deviation, were calculated for each trap type and collection period. The population structure was further characterized using standard ecological indices: Relative abundance=(Number of individuals of species i/Total number of individuals collected) × 100

Species diversity=Shannon–Wiener Index (H'=-Σpi ln pi)

All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 28.0, and graphical visualizations were generated using R version 4.3.2. Data were tested for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test before analysis, and data transformations were applied when necessary to meet statistical assumptions. Temporal activity patterns were analyzed using repeated-measures analysis of variance followed by Tukey’s honest significant difference post-hoc tests for multiple comparisons (Field, 2013).

Ethical approval

This research protocol was reviewed and approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, with approval number 93/EC-FKH/int./2024.

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Results

Overall fly capture and species composition

A total of 8,538 individual flies representing eight species across three dipteran families were collected during the study period. The dominant species was Musca domestica (5,839 individuals; 68.39%), followed by Musca crassirostris (1,077; 12.61%) and Musca stabulans (721; 8.44%). Other species included Fannia canicularis (5.01%), Stomoxys spp. (3.85%), Haematobia irritans (0.98%), Sarcophaga spp. (0.50%), and Tabanus rubidus (0.20%). Species richness varied across ecological zones, with five species recorded in the coastal zone and eight species each in the lowland and highland zones. The coastal zone exhibited the highest fly abundance (4,246 individuals), followed by the lowland (2,847) and highland zones (1,445). The species composition and their distribution across the ecological zones are detailed in Table 3.

Table 3. Species composition and abundance of captured flies across ecological zones

Comparison of trap performance

The total number of flies captured differed numerically among trap types. Dome 3 recorded the highest number of captures (1,908 individuals), followed by Dome 1 (1,393), Dome 2 (1,019), and the Nzi trap (844).

However, one-way ANOVA showed that these differences were not statistically significant (F₃,₁₂=3.42, p=0.053). Results of Tukey’s HSD post hoc analysis also indicated no significant pairwise differences among trap types. Table 4 shows the mean (± SD) number of flies captured by each trap type at different sampling times, whereas Table 5 summarizes the results of the one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD post hoc analyses comparing fly captures among trap types.

Table 4. Mean (±SD) fly captures by trap type at different collection times.

Table 5. One-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD post hoc comparisons of fly capture among trap types.

Temporal activity patterns

All trap types exhibited consistent diurnal activity patterns. Fly activity peaked at 10:00, with mean captures of 276 ± 30.67 (Dome 3), 223.25 ± 24.81 (Dome 1), 147 ± 16.33 (Dome 2), and 127.75 ± 14.19 (Nzi).

Capture rates declined progressively throughout the day, reaching their lowest levels at 16:00 across all trap types.

Species-specific distribution patterns

Musca domestica was the most abundant species in all ecological zones, with the highest densities observed in coastal areas. Musca crassirostris was more frequently recorded in lowland and highland zones, whereas Stomoxys spp. showed higher abundance in coastal environments.

Tabanus rubidus was predominantly found in lowland areas and was rarely observed in highland zones.

Regional ecological patterns

Coastal Zone: The coastal zone recorded the highest abundance (4,246 individuals), dominated by M. domestica (73.2%).

Lowland Zone: The lowland zone showed the highest species diversity (eight species) with 2,847 individuals.

Highland Zone: The highland zone recorded the lowest abundance (1,445 individuals) but maintained relatively high species richness (eight species).

Environmental correlation analysis

Correlation analysis demonstrated a significant negative relationship between elevation and total fly abundance (r=−0.67, p < 0.001), which is consistent with previous ecological studies showing that elevational gradients strongly influence insect diversity and abundance (Guo et al., 2021; Huang et al., 2022; Shen, 2022; Zhao et al., 2023; Liao et al., 2024).

Temperature was positively correlated with Stomoxys spp. abundance (r=0.78, p < 0.01), while humidity showed a moderate positive correlation with M. domestica populations (r=0.65, p < 0.05).

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Discussion

Trap performance in field conditions

The present study demonstrated that although Dome 3 recorded the highest number of fly captures, the differences among trap types were not statistically significant. This finding is consistent with previous studies indicating that variability in field conditions often reduces the ability to detect significant differences among trap designs (Mihok, 2002; Oloo et al., 2014).

Environmental heterogeneity, including host proximity, wind patterns, habitat structure, and diurnal fly activity patterns, has been shown to strongly influence trap performance (Geden, 2005; Zahn et al., 2020; Machtinger et al., 2021). Therefore, the non-significant statistical result observed in this study does not necessarily indicate that all traps perform identically in practical applications.

Influence of trap design and visual attraction

The higher numerical performance of Dome 3 may be attributed to its larger surface area and optimized color configuration. Previous studies have shown that visual cues, particularly color contrast and geometric structure, play a critical role in fly attraction (Dearden et al., 2024; Santer and Allen, 2024).

The blue-black color combination used in the dome traps is known to mimic host animals and enhance attraction efficiency in dipteran flies (Otabil et al., 2018; Phetcharat et al., 2024). Additionally, omnidirectional trap designs may provide advantages over directional traps such as the Nzi, especially in open grazing systems (Mihok, 2002).

Ecological dominance of Musca domestica

The dominance of Musca domestica (68.39%) observed in this study aligns with findings from tropical livestock systems, where this species typically represents the majority of fly populations due to its high reproductive capacity and ecological adaptability (Machtinger et al., 2021; El Ashmawy et al., 2021).

Livestock environments provide ideal breeding conditions for M. domestica, particularly due to the accumulation of organic waste such as cattle manure (Smith et al., 2022). This species is also recognized as an important mechanical vector for pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Cryptosporidium spp. (El Ashmawy et al., 2021; Sari et al., 2024; Shehata et al., 2024).

Environmental influence on fly abundance

The significantly higher fly abundance observed in coastal areas may be explained by favorable environmental conditions, including higher temperature and humidity. These factors accelerate larval development and increase adult survival rates in flies (Zhu et al., 2016; El Ashmawy et al., 2021; Li et al., 2023).

Conversely, the negative correlation between elevation and fly abundance observed in this study is consistent with ecological theory, where cooler temperatures at higher altitudes limit insect metabolism and population growth (Hodkinson, 2005).

Species distribution and vector potential

The presence of Stomoxys spp. and Haematobia irritans highlights the potential economic and epidemiological impact of fly infestations in cattle systems. These species are known to cause production losses through blood-feeding behavior and to act as vectors for pathogens (Walsh et al., 1978; Cook, 2020; Maas and Gerry 2020).

The higher abundance of Stomoxys spp. in coastal environments suggests that these areas may represent higher-risk zones for vector-borne disease transmission.

Study limitations and future research

The relatively short duration of sampling may have limited the ability to detect statistically significant differences among trap types. Previous studies have suggested that longer monitoring periods are required to capture variability in insect populations under natural conditions (Vreysen et al., 2013).

Future studies should incorporate longer sampling periods and increased replication to better evaluate trap performance and optimize fly control strategies in semi-extensive livestock systems.

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Conclusion

This study evaluated the performance of three dome trap designs compared with the standard Nzi trap for capturing flies in semi-extensive cattle grazing systems on Timor Island. Although no statistically significant differences were observed among trap types, Dome 3 consistently demonstrated higher numerical captures, suggesting potential practical advantages for field application.

The study confirmed that Musca domestica dominates fly populations in tropical livestock systems, with species distribution and abundance strongly influenced by ecological factors, particularly elevation and climatic conditions. Peak fly activity during mid-morning highlights critical periods for effective monitoring and control interventions.

These findings provide essential baseline data for the development of sustainable fly surveillance and management strategies in tropical cattle production systems. Further studies with extended sampling duration and increased replication are necessary to more robustly assess trap performance and optimize vector control approaches.

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Acknowledgments

The author expresses his gratitude and appreciation to the Indonesia Education Scholarship, Center for Higher Education Funding and Assessment, and Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education.

Conflicts of interest

The authors have no competing financial or professional interests related to this research.

Authors' contributions

ABO designed the study and drafted the manuscript. RWN, JP, and DP supervised the study and revised the manuscript; GWN drafted and reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version.

Data availability

All data are presented in this research.

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