Open Veterinary Journal, (2025), Vol. 15(8): 3380-3387

Review Article

10.5455/OVJ.2025.v15.i8.2

Mango, the king of fruits, with fascinating pharmacological activities and medicinal uses

Hala T. Mahmoud¹, Hassan A. Nabil¹, Ali A. Shahein², Wageh Sobhy Darwish^3* and Zeinab A. Mohamed²

¹Plant Protection Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Giza, Egypt

²Plant Protection Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt

³Department of Food Hygiene, Safety and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt

*Corresponding Author: Wageh Sobhy Darwish. Department of Food Hygiene, Safety and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt. Email: wagehdarwish [at] gmail.com

Submitted: 24/05/2025 Revised: 13/07/2025 Accepted: 20/07/2025 Published: 31/08/2025

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ABSTRACT

Mango (Mangifera sp.; family: Anacardiaceae) is one of the most widely consumed fruits globally due to its rich and aromatic flavor, which is balanced with a pleasant balance of sweetness and acidity. It has emerged as a functional food, providing essential macro- and micronutrients, as well as a vast array of bioactive compounds that are significant for enhancing health and lowering the risk of various diseases. Additionally, mango is used in traditional medicinal practices. A considerable number of volatile chemical compounds and other secondary metabolites, inclusive of carotenoids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and polyphenolic, have been identified in mango fruit. This review aims to show the chemical composition, pharmacological activities, and therapeutic uses of mango.

Keywords: Mango, Pharmacological activities, Medicinal uses, Laboratory animals.

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Introduction

Approximately 850 species and 73 genera make up the Anacardiaceae family, to which the mango (Mangifera indica) belongs (Tharanathan et al., 2006). It is a fruit that can be eaten both raw and cooked, and it grows in tropical and subtropical areas all around the globe (Jahurul et al., 2015). Mango is known for its high nutrient density in addition to its unusual flavor profile. In accordance with Oak et al. (2019), this fruit is well acknowledged for its capacity to provide humans with vitamins and energy, in addition to variant nutrients such as vitamins, trace minerals, and carbohydrates.

However, many mango fruit components, such as the peel and the seed, are frequently abandoned, which leads to environmental contamination. Mango fruits are used in a range of goods; however, this contributes to the problem. According to Ayala-Zavala et al. (2011), processing mangoes results in the production of a major byproduct known as the peel, which accounts for approximately 35%–60% of the waste generated from the fruit. This portion of the fruit, which accounts for approximately 15%–20% of the entire fruit weight, is often discarded, which contributes to pollution. In spite of this, these components contain a large quantity of beneficial phytochemicals, such as polyphenols and carotenoids, as well as several bioactive substances that are known to improve human health (Kittiphoom and Sutasinee, 2013). There are a lot of phenolic chemicals and flavonoids in mango leaves (MLs), which make them a sort of beneficial agricultural wastes. The stem bark of mango trees, on the other hand, has a number of beneficial biological effects, such as reducing inflammation and blood sugar levels (Sánchez et al., 2000; Garrido et al., 2004; Pan et al., 2008; Jahurul et al., 2015).

The presence of phenolic compounds in the human diet has been attributed to protective advantages against some chronic degenerative diseases associated with oxidative stress. Manach et al. (2005), Ajila et al. (2007), and Quintana et al. (2020) are just a few of the studies that have demonstrated the many beneficial features of carotenoids and phenolic compounds. These properties include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiallergenic, and antibacterial properties. These positive effects on cardiovascular health are due to the many bioactive compounds found in fruits and vegetables.

The chemical composition of mango

Mango has many important chemical components, particularly triterpenoids, flavonoids, and polyphenolic because of their significance. The most important bioactive component is mangiferin, a xanthone glycoside. Other key components include isomangiferin, tannins, and gallic acid derivatives. The bark contains a variety of tetracyclic triterpenoids. Additionally, the bark contains protocatechuic acid, mangiferin, catechin, alanine, and glycine (Scartezzini and Speroni, 2000).

According to Khan et al. (1993), the stem bark of the mango tree is responsible for the production of many chemicals, including n-tetracosane, n-heneicosane, n-triacontane, manghopanal, mangocoumarin, and mangoleanone. The stem bark has been used to extract mangostin and mangiferin (Pai et al., 1979). These compounds are in addition to the flavonoids typically found in the stem bark. According to Khan and Khan (1989), the flowers have produced many different alkyl gallate types. The roots of mango plants contain a variety of chromones. According to Ross (1999), fruit pulp contains a significant amount of β-carotene, xanthophylls, and vitamins A and C.

The antimicrobial effect of mango extract

According to Dzotam and Kuete (2017), certain medicinal plants possessing antimicrobial qualities have the ability to effectively combat the actions of multi-drug resistant bacteria, thereby contributing to the fight against antimicrobial resistance. The mango plant contains numerous morphological components, including leaves, stem, kernel, seeds, and bark. These components possess antimicrobial properties against a wide variety of microbes. In terms of its antibacterial capabilities, the extract from MLs has been the subject of the most thorough investigation. Hexane extracts of MLs have substantial antibacterial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Enterobacter aerogels (Bharti, 2013). Ouf et al. (2021) conducted a study to investigate the antimicrobial properties of essential oils extracted from five Egyptian mango cultivar leaves. The researchers were interested in determining whether these oils could be used as preservative materials against various pathogens. The phenolics, alkaloids, saponins, glycosides, terpenes, and tannins contained in MLs are the key phytochemicals that contribute to the antimicrobial properties that are experienced by the leaves of the mango tree. The following measurements were taken to determine the amounts of these compounds: According to Okwu and Ezenagu (2008), the flavonoid concentration was the greatest in the leaves, measuring 11.25 mg/100 g. Saponins were also detected, measuring 3.23 mg/100 g. ML extract contains a number of polyphenols and phenolic acids, some of which can suppress pathogens (Ediriweera et al., 2017). According to Guo et al. (2020), the process by which these drugs produce antibacterial activity comprises the dimension of intracellular ATP levels, plasma membrane depolarization, cytoplasm leakage, genetic material damage, and a drop in microbial protein concentration.

Furthermore, the leaf extract was shown to have a considerable level of antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria; however, it was found to have very little to no action against Gram-negative bacteria (Islam et al., 2010). The extract of MLs created a zone of inhibition that measured between 7.0 and 11.5 mm against Gram-positive bacteria. On the other hand, there was no evidence of any activity against Gram-negative Salmonella species. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the xanthone C-glycosyl molecule known as mangiferin, which is produced from the extract of MLs, had substantial iron chelating activity, which increases the antibacterial properties (Islam et al., 2010). The chemical analysis conducted on the extract of MLs, revealed the presence of several flavonoid components Kanwal et al. (2010). In addition, a wide range of terpenes have been extracted from MLs (Ediriweera et al., 2017).

In the process of finding hydrolyzable tannins, an high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-time-of-flight-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry analysis of the leaf extract was performed. The results of this investigation revealed the presence of gallatotannins. The latter has the ability to inhibit pathogen enzymes, disrupt lipid bilayer membranes, and facilitate the chelation of metal ions, which are all factors that contribute to their antibacterial properties (Konishi et al., 1993; Hannan et al., 2013).

The antioxidant effect of mango extract

Some degenerative diseases may have a connection to free radicals produced by metabolic processes, according to several studies. Many diseases fall into this category, including autoimmune disorders, neurological disorders, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (Schraml and Grillari, 2012). Conversely, antioxidant chemicals help mitigate free radical damage by virtue of their high levels of antioxidant activity. The presence of phenolics and flavonoids in MLs confers antioxidant characteristics (Kumar et al., 2020). Wu et al. (2020) used HPLC to identify the main compounds that contribute to the antioxidant activity of MLs. Some of these chemicals are quercetin, isomangiferin, mangiferin, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, and isoquercitrin. Evidence of MLs’ modest antioxidant impact has been shown by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay and the superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like activity. According to Itoh et al. (2020), the IC50 value for MLs is around 9 and 117 µg/ml, respectively. In a separate investigation, Mohan et al. (2013) found that MLs’ methanol extract exhibited radical scavenging activity, with an IC50 value of 13.37 µg/ml. The extracts showed a reducing power of 10172.59 µmol FeSO4.7H2O per gram of extracts, according to the ferric reducing antioxidant power experiment carried out by Kitbumrungsart et al. (2011). Moreover, according to previous research (Fernández-Ponce et al., 2017), the subcritical water extracts of MLs showed a greater degree of activity compared to (+)-α-tocopherol, with antioxidant activity index values of 7.92 ± 0.16.

Mangiferin, an antioxidant that has been discovered in MLs, bark, and, to a lesser degree, fruit pulp, has been shown in multiple studies to have benefits. The results show that it can generate a stable compound with Fe3+ and hence inhibit Fenton reactions and lipid peroxidation (Benard and Chi, 2015). Benard and Chi (2015) found that mangiferin’s capacity to neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as ROO., O2.-, H2O2, and OH, is similar to that of ascorbic acid, indicating that both compounds are effective antioxidants. Using the 2,20-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazolin-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) and DPPH tests, mangiferin has been shown to have antioxidant activity, which is an additional topic of interest (Tang et al., 2004). According to in vitro studies (Malherbe et al., 2014), mangiferin yields 0.61 mmol of Trolox when tested with DPPH, 1.67 mmol when examined with ABTS, and 3.69 mmol of Trolox when analyzed with the Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity test. The research led to the determination of these values. Mangiferin also protects against oxidative stress, according to studies in Wistar rats and healthy elderly people (Pardo-Andreu et al., 2008).

The antioxidant properties of mango fruit are due in part to the presence of phenolic acids, such as gallic and ellagic acids. Badhani et al. (2015) found that gallic acid can neutralize ROS such OH, O2.-, and ROO and inhibit lipid peroxidation. Additionally, gallic acid can counteract other oxidizing agents such as HClO and H2O2. One factor that helps explain why this happens is when hydroxyl groups are present in the ortho-position. Lung fibroblasts (V79-4) isolated from Chinese hamsters demonstrated an increase in the activities of glutathione peroxidase, SOD, and catalase when exposed to ellagic acid, as demonstrated by the DPPH assay (Han et al., 2006). According to Zapata et al. (2020), there was no discernible effect on the plasma antioxidant capacity or oxidative stress indicators after 26 days of consumption of mango juice. Acid peroxidation, total glutathione, and 8-hydroxy-guanosine were some biomarkers assessed. Participating in the trial were healthy adults whose diets raise the likelihood of developing colorectal cancer. The mango bark extract known as vimana contains a high concentration of mangiferin (10 mM) and phenolic acids, esters, and flavan-3-ols. A decrease in thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances levels was observed after 30 days of taking 14.67 mmol L⁻¹ of Vimang, as reported by Pardo Andreu et al. (2006a, b). The researchers’ working hypothesis was this. This study also looked at how the extract affected total glutathione levels; however, after taking the extract, the participants did not experience any noticeable changes (Pardo-Andreu et al., 2008). The disparities found in these studies may have been caused by differences in the individuals’ diets, as stated by Suwimol et al. (2012). Specifically, oxidative DNA damage and higher lipid peroxidation were linked to participants’ poor fruit and vegetable diet (Zapata et al., 2020). It is supported by this evidence that the phenolic compounds present in certain foods contribute to their protective properties, such as against oxidative stress. Moreover, there is a robust correlation between the ability of the plasma to create antioxidants and the ingestion of foods rich in phenolic compounds. Wang et al. (2012) provided empirical evidence for this by showing that plasma antioxidant concentrations increased in response to a dietary increase in antioxidant-rich foods.

Mango eating can enhance antioxidant capacity in plasma or serum fluids, according to research by García-Solís et al. (2008), which involved both people and rats. Robles-Sanchez et al. (2011) also discovered that healthy volunteers whose diets included peeled and sliced mangoes for 30 days had higher plasma antioxidant capacity than the control group.

Therapeutic uses of mango extracts

Anticancer

In their work, Noratto et al. (2010) examined the anticancer effects of polyphenolic extracts from various mango types in comparison to cancer cell lines. A549 lung, Molt-4 leukemia, MDA-MB-231 breast, LnCap prostate, SW-480 colon cancer cells, and CCD-18Co, a non-cancerous colon cell line, were all included in the list of cancer cell lines. The ethanol extracts had notable cytotoxic effects on HeLa cells, as shown in studies by Ali et al. (2012) and Timsina et al. (2015). In addition, with an IC50 value below 10 μg/ml, the bioactive fraction obtained from the crude extract showed antiproliferative potential.

In addition, research has shown that mango has cytotoxic effects on many cancer cell lines, including (Muanza et al., 1995; Peng et al., 2004).

Complete mango juice and its derivatives exhibit anticancer properties, as demonstrated by Percival et al. (2006). This finding was made when they noticed that the cell cycle during G0/G1 was suppressed when HL-60 cells were incubated with whole mango juice or its components. Further studies have shown that mangiferin can affect the construction and function of microtubule filaments as well as matrix components, making it harder for cells to adhere and link with each other (Shoji et al., 2011). According to Cheng et al. (2007) and Shoji et al. (2011), mangiferin may also inhibit telomerase and related genes, or promote cellular death. Both of these methods can reduce the risk of cancer. Mango meat and peel were also studied for their potential antiproliferative effects by Kim et al. (2012).

Antidiabetic

Bhowmik et al. (2009) and Morsi et al. (2010) discovered that rats with type 2 diabetes experienced a strong and effective hypoglycemic effect when given an oral dose of 250 mg/kg of body weight. Two weeks following the administration of a high dose (1 g/kg/d) of powdered, aqueous, and alcoholic extracts of Mangifera indica leaves, a notable decrease in the mean plasma glucose content was recorded by Akbar et al. (2006). Two weeks following extract delivery, this decrease was noted. At doses of 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg/kg of body weight, Wadood (2000) found that the alcoholic extract of Mangifera indica leaves had anti-diabetic effects in rabbits. The aqueous ML extract also exhibited a distinct hypoglycemic effect in diabetic rats, as noted by Miura et al. (2001). This was noted in rodents. Additional research by Bhowmik et al. (2009) indicated that the stem bark of Mangifera indica possesses antidiabetic characteristics. Oliver-Bever (1986) discovered that mango bark and root extracts significantly reduced hyperglycemic rats’ blood sugar levels.

Antiinflammatory

Standard aqueous stem bark extract of Mangifera indica exhibited antiinflammatory effects, according to Dhananjaya and Shivalingaiah (2016). At a dosage of approximately 40 μg/ml, the researchers showed that the extract reduced the activity of the Group IA sPLA2 enzyme by up to 98%. Beltrana et al. (2004) found that mangiferin has antiinflammatory effects. The suppression of cyclooxygenase-2 and iNOS synthesis is associated with these effects. Researchers have shown that mangiferin may improve cellular resilience to inflammatory damage, regulate inflammatory gene expressions, and suppress inflammatory cellular activations (Sánchez et al., 2000; Carvalho et al., 2009). Possible antiinflammatory strategies include regulating inflammatory gene expression, inhibiting inflammatory cellular activation, and maintaining a balance between pro- and antiinflammatory cytokines. Thermoregulatory neural centers in fever inhibit prostaglandin synthesis, and the lysosomal membrane in isoprenaline-induced cardiac necrosis inhibits hydrolase activity; these are the subcellular targets of the anti-inflammatory effects, according to Bhatia et al. (2008). Reducing prostaglandin production is associated with both of these aims.

Hepatoprotective

Nithitanakool et al. (2009) conducted a study to determine whether mango seed kernels have any hepatoprotective effects. The effects of mango pulp extract (MPE) on the livers of Swiss albino mice were assessed to assess its chemopreventive properties. MPE has been shown to effectively protect mouse liver cells against oxidative stress-induced cellular damage through its modulatory effects on components involved in cell growth.

Antihemorrhagic

Regarding snake venoms, research by Leanpolchareanchai et al. (2009) and Pithayanukul et al. (2009) have shown that mango extract has antihemorrhagic and antidermonecrotic properties.

Antitetanus

Extracts from MI leaves were found to be effective against Clostridium tetani, a bacteria that causes a large number of deaths globally, according to Bbosa et al. (2007). The anti-Clostridium tetani action was obvious in both the ether and ethanolic leaf extracts; the MICs were 6.25 and 12.5 mg/ml, respectively.

Antipyretic and analgesic

By administering the extract from the stem bark of MI to mice, the antipyretic benefits of the plant were established. The extract also reduced yeast-induced hyperpyrexia, according to Awe et al. (1998).

Antiulcer

The antiulcer efficacy of petroleum ether and ethanol extracts derived from MLs was tested by Neelima et al. (2012) in an in vivo model of aspirin-induced stomach ulcer. Ulcers were thought to be well treated by the extracts. The ulcer index was significantly decreased by the 250 mg/kg ethanol and petroleum ether extracts of mango tree leaves. Mangiferin protects the stomach from damage via antisecretory and antioxidant mechanisms, according to another study (Carvalho et al., 2007).

Regulation of the lipid profile

Total serum cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein, and very low-density lipoprotein were all significantly reduced in rats treated with an aqueous extract of Mangifera indica leaves, whereas high-density lipoproteins were increased. According to Shah et al. (2010), when the aqueous ML extract was given to overweight subjects at a dose of 200 mg/kg body weight, there was a marked decrease in elevated levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein, and very low-density lipoprotein and a marked increase in high-density lipoprotein.

Antidiarrheal

Seeds of Moringa indica were shown to contain methanolic and aqueous extracts that could treat diarrhea, according to Sairam et al. (2003). Probably, an aqueous mango kernel extract was studied for its anti-diarrheal properties by Alkizim et al. (2012).

Antifungal

Vega-Vega et al. (2013) found that at a concentration of 6.25 mg/ml, mango methanol, ethanol, and water extracts were effective against Alternaria alternata, an invasive fungus species.

The antiviral

The herpes simplex virus (HSV), HIV, and hepatitis B virus have all been found to be susceptible to mangiferin’s antiviral effects (Zheng et al., 1990; Guha et al., 1996). Research on mangiferin’s effects on type 2 HSV was conducted in vitro, as reported by Zhu et al. (1993). Mangiferin does not directly kill HSV-2 cells, but it does inhibit the virus’s ability to replicate in its later stages. Furthermore, mangiferin can inhibit HSV-1 cellular replication and mitigate HIV’s cytotoxic effects, according to in vitro studies (Guha et al., 1996).

Anthelmintic

Garcia et al. (2003) confirmed the anthelminthic properties of mangiferin, a component of MI stem bark, in mice infected with Trichinella spiralis.

Antimalarial

The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential antiplasmodial effects of a MI stem bark extract against Plasmodium yoeliinigeriensis. The extract exhibited activity as a repository and schizontocidal function during the early stages of infection (Awe et al., 1998). An examination was conducted to ascertain the in vitro efficacy of the chloroform:methanol (1:1) MI extract against malaria. This extract showed significant efficiency against P. falciparum in vitro, as demonstrated by Bidla et al. (2004), with a growth suppression rate of 50.4% at a dose of 20 μg/ml.

Bronchodilators

Agbonon et al. (2005) studied the effects of an aqueous extract of the stem bark of M. indica (mangiferin) on the trachea of rats injected with acetylcholine and histamine. These studies reveal that mangiferin, an aqueous extract of M. indica, can inhibit the activity of histaminic and muscarinic receptors in the rat trachea. This finding raises the possibility that this extract could be used to treat asthma (Agbonon et al., 2005).

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Conclusion

There is some evidence that the mango, sometimes called the “king of fruits,” may have medicinal properties. According to a literature study, mangoes have anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, and antibacterial qualities. However, to determine what exactly drives such actions, more research is required.

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Acknowledgments

None.

Conflict of interest

None.

Funding

Not available

Authors’ contributions

All authors contributed equally.

Ethical approval

Not required.

Data availability

All related data are included in the manuscript.

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