Open Veterinary Journal, (2025), Vol. 15(9): 4136-4145

Research Article

10.5455/OVJ.2025.v15.i9.19

Antibiotic resistance: Survey of Russian veterinarians

Akchurin Sergey Vladimirovich^*, Akchurina Irina Vladimirovna, Muradyan Ekaterina Andreevna, Svistunov Dmitriy Valerevich and Dyulger Georgiy Petrovich

Russian State Agrarian University, Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, Moscow, Russia

*Corresponding Author: Akchurin Sergey Vladimirovich. Russian State Agrarian University, Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, Moscow, Russia. Email: sakchurin [at] rgau-msha.ru

Submitted: 26/05/2025 Revised: 01/08/2025 Accepted: 12/08/2025 Published: 30/09/2025

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ABSTRACT

Background: The overuse and misuse of antimicrobial agents contribute to the development of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial drugs, complicating the treatment of common infectious diseases. Antimicrobial resistance is recognized as a serious threat to human and animal health and economic well-being worldwide. A comprehensive approach is proposed to minimize the spread of antibiotic resistance, including understanding of the characteristics of antibiotic use by veterinarians.

Aim: This study aimed to determine Russian veterinarians’ level of knowledge and attitudes toward the problem of antibiotic resistance and to identify factors influencing the choice of antimicrobials as a therapeutic agent.

Methods: A total of 250 people were interviewed. Respondents filled out online Google questionnaires. The data were stored electronically in a Microsoft Excel database, where statistical analysis was also performed.

Results: In total, 93.2% of veterinarians use antibiotics in their veterinary practice. The results of laboratory tests (41.2%) and antibiotic susceptibility testing (40.0%) are the most important factors influencing the choice of antibiotic. Moreover, 76.0% of veterinarians agreed that inappropriate use of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance, and 81.6% agreed that many infections are becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotic treatment. The respondents considered the following measures to control antibiotic resistance to be very important: limiting unnecessary treatment (64.8%), providing postgraduate education for veterinarians (62.0%), educating farmers/animal owners (58.8%), and forbidding the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in farm animals (57.2%). 52.4% of veterinarians answered that the veterinary clinic where they work has a protocol for the use of antibiotics.

Conclusion: This research is aimed at identifying areas for improvement in the rationalization of antibiotic use in Russian veterinary practice, including previously adopted measures. The following areas can be suggested for improvement: insufficient level of knowledge of veterinarians about the problem of antibiotic resistance; insufficient availability of information for veterinarians about the profile of bacteria in various infectious diseases of animals, measures for the rational use of antibiotics, and the availability of alternative treatment methods (without the use of antibiotics); and reliable, inexpensive, and rapid methods for determining the sensitivity of bacteria to antibiotics.

Keywords: Antibiotics, Veterinary medicine, Veterinarians, Antibiotic resistance, Survey.

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Introduction

The use of antibiotics is recognized as a revolutionary solution not only in human medicine but also in veterinary medicine, which has significantly improved the health and well-being of animals, including companion animals, and has become the basis for the transition to intensive industrial livestock and poultry production (Alós, 2014; Economou, 2015). However, the established practice of using antimicrobials in veterinary medicine and animal husbandry can contribute to the growth of bacteria resistant to most antibiotics (Gustafson and Bowen, 1997; Mcewen and Fedorka-Cray, 2002) and increases the risk of subsequent human exposure to multi-resistant microorganisms and/or antibiotic residues through food consumption, direct contact with companion animals, livestock, or contaminated environment (Mancuso et al., 2021).

The World Health Organization rightly considers the problem of bacterial resistance to antimicrobials to be one of the leading threats to public health in the 21st century (WHO, 2024). The problem of antimicrobial resistance is caused by complex biological and social-economic factors and requires coordinated interaction between veterinary scientists, epidemiologists, microbiologists, environmental scientists, agricultural/forestry scientists, and the government (Jit et al., 2020).

Considering that antimicrobial resistance is an environmental problem characterized by complex interactions involving different microbial populations that affect human, animal, and environmental health, a coordinated multisectoral approach such as One Health has been proposed (Torren-Edo et al., 2015). Jit et al. (2020) emphasized the importance of public interventions to reduce antimicrobial resistance by promoting antibiotic development, prudent use of antibiotics, infection control, and introduction of partial substitutes such as rapid diagnostic tests and vaccines. Many countries have developed and adopted national programs to combat bacterial resistance to antimicrobial drugs: Belgium (The Federal Public Service (FPS), Germany (Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2024), Italy (Ministero della Salute), Australia (Australian Government), etc.

In 2017, the Russian Federation adopted the Strategy for the Prevention of the Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance in the Russian Federation until 2030 (Government of the Russian Federation, 2024). The strategy was developed considering the Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance adopted at the World Health Assembly (WHO, 2015).

As part of the implementation of the above strategy, the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation, by order of the Minister, approved the list of drugs intended for the treatment of infectious and parasitic diseases of animals caused by pathogenic microorganisms and opportunistic microorganisms, for which restrictions are imposed on their use for medicinal purposes, including for the treatment of farm animals (Official publication of legal acts 18.11.2021 No 771). On March 1, 2025, the order of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation dated November 2, 2022 No. 776 came into force, providing for the prescription dispensing of drugs for veterinary use, including antimicrobial drugs, and also approving the procedure for prescribing antimicrobial drugs, a list of acceptable antimicrobial drugs for use in veterinary practice, and the procedure for issuing a prescription form (Official publication of legal acts 02.11.2022 No 776).

Along with the adoption of regulations aimed at combating AMR, it is important to study the attitude of veterinarians to the problem of AMR to develop and implement more effective measures to combat this problem.

This study aimed to determine the level of knowledge of Russian veterinarians about the problem of antibiotic resistance and their attitude toward it, to identify factors influencing the choice of antimicrobial drugs as therapeutic agents. Obtaining new information is aimed at improving the system of measures to rationalize the use of antibiotics in veterinary medicine for companion and farm animals.

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Materials and Methods

Information about respondents

The respondents selected for the survey were veterinarians specializing in providing veterinary care to companion and farm animals and working in veterinary clinics in Moscow and the Moscow region of the Russian Federation. A total of 250 people were surveyed.

Study design

The conceptual framework presenting this work was based on the results of previous studies in this area by Eltholth et al. (2020). A structured questionnaire was used to collect sociodemographic data on veterinarians, and additional information was collected on the attitude of doctors toward the problem of antibiotic resistance, factors influencing the choice of antimicrobial drug in animal therapy, assessment of potential ways to solve the problem of antibiotic resistance, and the presence of a protocol for the use of antibiotics in the veterinary clinic in which the respondents work. The questions used a 5-point Likert scale to assess the levels of (dis)agreement with the statements (1=completely disagree; 2=somewhat disagree; 3=do not know; 4=somewhat agree; 5=completely agree) and a 5-point Likert scale to rank the items in order of importance (1=not important; 2=a little important; 3=somewhat important; 4=important; 5=very important).

The questionnaire was tested with five veterinary specialists working in the veterinary clinic of the Russian State Agrarian University – Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy. The questionnaire was developed in Russian by members of the research team. The questionnaire was the only data collection instrument used in this study.

Data collection

The survey contained a combination of single-answer and multiple-choice questions. An electronic version of the survey was compiled based on the data. The electronic form was uploaded to Google Forms.

Data management and analysis

Respondents completed electronic copies of the questionnaire. The data were stored electronically in a Microsoft Excel database and anonymized for further analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using Excel and SPSS Statistics v24.0.

Ethical approval

This study was exempted from Ethics Committee approval because it was an analytical study. Consent was obtained from respondents, and their data were processed anonymously in accordance with the guidelines of the General Data Protection Regulation.

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Results

Demographic information

During the survey, 250 people were interviewed, including 163 women (65.2%) and 87 men (34.8%). Table 1 presents the characteristics of the respondents. The largest number of respondents represented the group of 25–30 years old (26.4%), 19–24 years old (17.6%), and 31–36 years old (17.2%).

Table 1. Characteristics of the respondents.

The majority of respondents were general practitioners (146 people, 56.0%). The remaining respondents have a narrow specialization (Table 1). Of the respondents, 20 (8%) are surgeons, 12 (4.8%) specialize in obstetrics and gynecology, and 10 (4.0%) specialize in visual diagnostics.

In total, 199 veterinarians (79.6%) specialized in working with companion animals, and 51 veterinarians (20.4%) specialized in working with farm animals. Of the respondents, 23 have less than a year of experience in veterinary medicine (9.2%), 85 have from 1 to 5 years (34.0%), 41 have from 6 to 10 years (16.4%), and 101 have more than 10 years (40.4%).

Frequency of antibiotic use and factors influencing its use

The majority of respondents (93.2%) stated that they prescribe antibacterial therapy to animals. The results of the answer to the question “To how many out of 10 patients do you prescribe antibacterial therapy?” are presented in Table 2. The most popular answers were as follows: 5 animals out of 10—68 people (27.2%), 4 animals out of 10—55 people (22.0%), and 17 people (6.8%) do not prescribe antibiotics. On average, general practitioners prescribe antibiotics to every fourth patient.

Table 2. Number of patients out of 10 possible to whom antibiotic therapy is prescribed by respondents.

Respondents indicated the factors that influenced their choice of antibiotic. Figure 1 presents the distribution of these factors. Laboratory diagnostics (4.01 on the Likert scale), antibiotic susceptibility testing (3.93 on the scale), and disease severity (3.86 on the scale) were the most important.

Fig. 1. Factors influencing the choice of antibiotic dosage.

Questions were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1=not important; 2=not very important; 3=somewhat important; 4=important; 5=very important), with the average score shown here from lowest to highest.

The most important factors influencing the choice of antibiotic, according to respondents, were the results of laboratory tests (41.2%), antibiotic sensitivity test (40.0%), and the state of the disease/severity of clinical symptoms (31.2%) (Fig. 2). According to respondents, the following are not important when choosing an antibiotic: the pet owner’s needs (38.4%), the owner’s economic status (30.8%), the cost of the antibiotic (30.4%), and ease of administration (29.6%).

Fig. 2. Factors influencing the choice of antibiotic dosage.

The survey of respondents allowed us to establish the importance of various factors when choosing the antibiotic dosage (Fig. 3). The most important factors were as follows: the weight of the animal (4.42 on the Likert scale) and disease severity (4.38 on the Likert scale).

Fig. 3. Factors influencing the choice of antibiotic dosage.

The most important factors influencing the choice of antibiotic dosage, according to respondents, are the weight of the animal (72%), the severity of the disease (64.4%), the manufacturer’s instructions (48.8%), and the age of the animal (33.2%) (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Factors influencing the choice of antibiotic dosage.

Veterinarians’ perceptions of antibiotic resistance

Themajority of the respondents totally agreed or rather agreed that improper use of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance (76.0%); if bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, then treating the infection they cause can be very difficult or impossible (83.2%). Antibiotic-resistant infections can make medical/veterinary procedures such as surgery and cancer treatment much more dangerous (71.6%). Antibiotic resistance is a problem that can affect me or my family (73.2%). Many infections are becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotic treatment (81.6%), and improper use of antibiotics can lead to increased side effects and additional costs (75.2%). Figure 5 shows the summary data on veterinarians’ perceptions of antibiotic resistance.

Fig. 5. Perception of veterinarians regarding the problem of antibiotic resistance.

Veterinarians’ attitudes toward antimicrobial resistance control measures

Figure 6 shows a summary of veterinarians’ attitudes to antibiotic resistance control measures. Restriction of unnecessary treatment (4.43 on a Likert scale), continuous education for veterinarians and farmers (4.37 on a Likert scale), education for farmers/animal owners (4.30 on a Likert scale), and banning the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in farm animals (4.09 on a Likert scale) were rated as extremely important measures to control excessive antibiotic use by respondents. The least important measures were the introduction of a tax on the use of antibiotics (2.18 on a Likert scale) and the use of alternative therapy (2.94 on a Likert scale).

Fig. 6. Antimicrobial resistance control measures.

Respondents considered the following measures very important: limiting unnecessary treatment (64.8%), providing continuing education for veterinarians (62.0%), educating farmers/animal owners (58.8%), banning the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in farm animals (57.2%), improving animal welfare (46.0%), making antibiotics prescription-only (36.8%), and obtaining a local antibiotic resistance profile (35.6%). Figure 7 presents information on veterinarians’ opinions on antimicrobial resistance control measures.

Fig. 7. Attitude of veterinarians to measures to control antibiotic resistance.

Veterinary specialists were also surveyed on who they considered most interested in controlling the excessive use of antibiotics. The question provided a choice of several answers. The survey results are presented in Figure 8. Veterinarians were the most interested (74%), followed by livestock product consumers (60.4%). Retail stores selling dairy and meat products and veterinary pharmacies were considered the least interested (11.6% and 13.2%, respectively).

Fig. 8. Veterinarians’ opinions on stakeholders in controlling excessive antibiotic use.

To the question “Does the veterinary clinic where you work have a protocol for the use of antibiotics?” 52.4% of respondents answered “yes,” and 47.6% answered “no.”

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Discussion

In 2019, the World Health Organization published a report, Antibiotic Resistance: Addressing the Cultural Contexts of Health in Tackling a Global Health Problem (Ledingham et al., 2019), which highlighted the important idea that antibiotic resistance is typically addressed through top-down approaches to scientific innovation, surveillance, and antibiotic stewardship, with the role of governments and other relevant actors in developing effective plans. The authors of the WHO report, while highlighting the importance of developing plans, call for cultural context to be considered, as effective policies in some settings will not work in others. The importance of humanities and social science expertise is emphasized, with an emphasis on participatory research methods, knowledge sharing, and qualitative data collection and analysis practices, to effectively complement and strengthen scientific, technological, and regulatory approaches to antibiotic resistance.

Veterinarians play an important role in curbing the spread of antibiotic resistance, and their opinions should be taken into account when developing effective measures to address the problem of antibiotic resistance.

The survey revealed that veterinarians widely use antibiotics in veterinary practice. This was indicated by 93.2% of the respondents. Similar results were obtained in other studies. A study conducted in Nigeria showed that 98.5% of veterinarians recommended the use of antibiotics for the treatment of animals (Ogwuche et al., 2021). In a study conducted in Greece, 94.0% recommended antibiotics (Valiakos et al., 2020).

The most important factors influencing the choice of antibiotic, according to respondents, were as follows: laboratory diagnostic results (41.2%) and antibiotic susceptibility testing (40.0%). The fact that these factors received the greatest number of responses from respondents but were not chosen by even half of the survey participants may indicate the difficulties that arise in this important part of infectious disease diagnostics. As noted in previous studies (Norris et al., 2019; Eltholth et al., 2020), the low level of laboratory diagnostics of infectious diseases of animals, including access to rapid and affordable diagnostic tests, remains an important factor in the prescription of antibiotics without determining the susceptibility of bacteria to them. According to Valiakos et al. (2020), 73% of veterinarians in Greece initiate empirical treatment, waiting for laboratory test results, or use an antibiogram only in case of treatment failure. The majority of surveyed veterinarians (76.0%) agreed with the statement that improper use of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance. In a similar study conducted in India, 86.5% of surveyed veterinarians agreed with this statement (Dhayal et al., 2024). Moreover, 81.6% of respondents agreed with the statement that many infections are becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotic treatment. Similar results were obtained by the British Veterinary Association: almost 90% of UK veterinarians are concerned about the loss of the ability to treat animal infections due to antimicrobial resistance (British Veterinary Association, 2025).

The respondents considered the following measures to be very important for controlling antibiotic resistance: limiting unnecessary treatment (64.8%), providing continuing education for veterinarians (62.0%), educating farmers/animal owners (58.8%), and banning the use of antibiotics as growth promoters for farm animals (57.2%). Studies conducted in different countries indicate that veterinarians have insufficient knowledge of the rational use of antibiotics of containing the spread of antibiotic resistance (Eltholth et al., 2020; Kovačević et al., 2022; Sarker et al., 2024).

A significant organizational reserve for working on the problem of antibiotic resistance is improving approaches to antibiotic therapy in veterinary clinics. Thus, about half of the respondents (52.4%) answered that the veterinary clinic where they work has a protocol for the use of antibiotics. Similar studies conducted in other countries yielded the following results: Greece, 45.8% (Valiakos et al., 2020) and Nigeria, 54.7% (Smith et al., 2022).

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Conclusion

The conducted research aims to identify areas for improvement in the rationalization of antibiotic use in Russian veterinary practice, along with previously adopted measures.

The first area for improvement is the insufficient level of knowledge of veterinarians about the problem of antibiotic resistance. The following measures can be proposed as areas for improvement:

• improving the system of training personnel in educational organizations, including the creation of a single training course “Antibiotic resistance and rational use of antibiotics” for all veterinary training universities;

• legislative consolidation of the obligation of veterinarians to undergo advanced training in the course “Antibiotic resistance” at least once every two years in certified training centers;

• development of information posters for veterinarians about the problem of antibiotic resistance and their placement on the veterinary clinics’ premises and on their websites.

The second area for improvement is the lack of information available to veterinarians on the bacterial profile of various infectious diseases in animals, measures for the rational use of antibiotics, and the availability of alternative treatments without antibiotics. The following measures can be proposed for improvement:

• ensuring that the state monitors the antibiotic resistance of bacteria found in animals through a systematic, continuous process of collecting, analyzing, and reporting data on the resistance of bacteria to antimicrobial drugs. The information should be accessible to veterinarians and systematized to account for the heterogeneity of the data (groups of antibiotics, bacteria, animal species, pathologies, and regions of occurrence). For example, in Russia, there is a platform “AMRcloud” (www.amrcloud.net). It is important to ensure constant access to up-to-date information from practicing veterinarians on all cases of antibiotic resistance in animals.

• The relevant government agency should provide veterinary clinics and practicing doctors with official guidance on this issue.

• improving veterinarians’ skills on the rational use of antibiotics based on the platform and recommendations.

The third area for improvement is the low availability of reliable, inexpensive, rapid methods for determining the sensitivity of bacteria to antibiotics. Government grants should support scientific research in this area.

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all participating veterinarians who answered the questionnaire.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the study was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

Not applicable.

Authors’ contributions

ASV contributed to the conception, survey design, data analysis, and writing of the manuscript. AIV, MEA, SDV, and DGP contributed to questionnaire preparation and manuscript editing. All authors contributed to manuscript editing and have read and approved the submitted version.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.

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