Open Veterinary Journal, (2026), Vol. 16(4): 2449-2460

Case Report

10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i4.46

Microplastics in edible tissues of Awassi Sheep in Nineveh Governorate, Iraq: Quantitative analysis and implications for food safety and public health

Safwan Luqman Shihab and Alaa Shamil Alalaf^*

Department of Animal Production, College of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq

*Corresponding Author: Alaa Shamil Alalaf. Department of Animal Production, College of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq. Email: Alaa.shamil [at] uomosul.edu.iq

Submitted: 14/11/2025 Revised: 03/03/2026 Accepted: 16/03/2026 Published: 30/04/2026

---

ABSTRACT

Background: The global increase in plastic production worldwide, with improper waste processing, has led to the distribution of microplastic contamination in soil, water, and food products, which, in turn, increases human health risk through the consumption of animal products.

Aim: This study was designed to evaluate microplastic contamination in Awassi sheep edible tissues in Nineveh governorate, Iraq, using the contamination factor (CF) and pollution load index (PLI) parameters.

Methods: Eighty samples of meat (muscle), liver, and intestine were collected from four cities in Nineveh Governorate. Samples were stored at −20°C in (Hitachi chest freezer, HRCS11316MNW, China), digested with KOH for 8 hours at 60°C, and isolated by density separation in a NaCl/ZnCl₂ solution. Samples were then filtered and examined using stereomicroscopy to determine count, shape, and size, and were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for polymer identification. Contamination levels were evaluated using the CF and PLI, while human exposure risk was determined by calculating the annual meat consumption rate.

Results: The contamination rate was the highest in Badush city, with medium-sized particles reached 77.6, 65.6, and 72.5 particles/g in the meat, liver, and intestine, respectively. These particles were mostly irregular in shape and were black and brown. Fourier transform infrared analysis confirmed the presence of nylon and polyethylene as primary polymers. The CF andPLI were the highest in Badush city, with an exposure rate reaching 676.1 particles/g in meat, higher than Mosul (523.3), Tel Keif (464.1), and Al-Hamdaniya (425.9). The contamination with microplastics in the liver and intestine was also greater in Badush, which was 9.8 and 10 particles/g, respectively.

Conclusion: Given the potential biological toxicity of medium-sized microplastic particles, an immediate mitigation response is necessary. The discovery of nylon and polyethylene in animal tissues highlights the significance of microplastic pollution as a new threat to livestock health and food security. The extensive use of plastics in agricultural practices and food packaging is the primary source of contamination here.

Keywords: Awassi sheep, FTIR spectroscopy, Microplastic, Nylon, Public Health.

---

Introduction

Over the past century, human activity has become a substantial contributor to pollution and ecological degradation, threatening human health and the environment (Bahrani et al., 2024). Plastic waste is considered one of the main challenges globally, which increased worldwide, from 390 million tons in 2021 to approximately 450 million tons in 2023. By 2025, this amount may double or even quadruple by 2025 (Kubíková et al., 2024). In Europe alone, the demand for plastic reached 50.7 million tons (Geryer et al., 2017). The quantity of plastic waste in Iraq may increase due to high population growth and human activity, which has led to a complicated pollution problem (Hamza, 2020).

Microplastics enter the environment through wastewater, rainwater runoff, and shipping activity (Hossain et al., 2019), and over 13 million metric tons of microplastics are transported via water and end up in the oceans (Banik et al., 2024). Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic intensified microplastic pollution due to the massive use of plastic products, such as face masks, gloves, and disposable tableware. This surge in plastic consumption places an additional environmental burden (Chen et al., 2024).

On the other hand, plastic is a unique and durable class of material characterized by its resistance to weathering and temperature changes, low cost, and versatility (Thompson et al., 2009). It is present in various chemical forms, such as polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene terephthalate (Rochman et al., 2019; Alalaf and Alnuaimy, 2025). Plastic degrades into tiny particles called microplastics (shorter than 5 mm) and nanoplastics (smaller than 0.1 µm) (Frias and Nash, 2019). These plastic particles can pass to the food chain through vegetable crops, soil, and irrigation with contaminated water (Wang et al., 2020: Zuccarello et al., 2019). Consumption of contaminated plants by animals and humans may lead to significant health risks. In addition, microplastics can be reintroduced into the environment through animal excretion, perpetuating a persistent cycle of ecosystem pollution (Yılmaz and Baytok, 2022).

Micro and nanoplastics bioaccumulate in vital human organs, including the liver, intestine, spleen, and skeletal muscle (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2023). Smaller particles (<1 μm) can pass through biological barriers to systemic circulation, inducing chronic inflammation, cytotoxicity, and carcinogenic effects (Park et al., 2020). Large particles (>10 μm) can accumulate in the tissue and placenta and even pass to the embryo’s body (Ragusa et al., 2020). Prenatal microplastic exposure increases the risk of metabolic disorders such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (Hasan et al., 2024: Marfella et al., 2024). While microplastics contaminate global food systems, no studies have examined their presence in Iraq’s livestock products. This investigation quantifies microplastic loads in Awassi sheep edible tissue across Nineveh’s governorate, including the microplastic concentration, size, shape, color, and type, using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis. Assessment of the contamination and risk factors.

---

Material and Methods

Study area and sample collection

Eighty edible tissue samples (meat, liver, intestine) 100 g each from Awassi sheep were collected between January and April 2025 from four regions of Nineveh Governorate—Badush (36.417°N, 42.965°E), Mosul (36.385°N, 43.131°E), Talkeif (36.423°N, 43.162°E), and Al-Hamdaniya (36.352°N, 43.380°E) cities, obtained from slaughterhouses and butcheries, animals were free ranged and fed (Fig. 1). Samples store with an ice-cooled glass containers, sterile under sanitary conditions, with each sample documented for origin, tissue type, and collection date before being transported to the Central laboratory in Agriculture and forestry College, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq, where they were stored at −20°C in (Hitachi chest freezer, HRCS11316MNW, China) in pre-cleaned glassware until microplastic analysis was performed. Processing of the samples were conducted in a laminar flow cabinet and, all solutions were filtered through using 0.45 µm glass filters prior to use, all glassware were rinsed with deionized filtered water and covered with aluminum foil; the technicians were wearing cotton lab coats and nitrile gloves, and all surfaces were cleaned with ethanol, and containers were kept covered at all times. The study was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee in the College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Mosul, under approval number (UM.VET.2025.015).

Fig. 1. Illustrates a map of Nineveh Governorate, Iraq, highlighting the cities where samples were obtained: Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya (Bakhdida). These cities were selected as they represent largest cities in the region.

Sample preparation

Samples were cut to smaller pieces (7–10 g) for the next digestion process. The chemical digestion was performed by transferring the samples to glass beakers containing 500 ml of KOH solution 1:10 w/v in distilled H₂O (10%) at a ratio of 1 g tissue per 10 ml KOH. The mixture was incubated at 60°C ± 2°C for 8 hours with continuous stirring. After cooling, the particles were filtered with filter paper (Ahlstrom, Finland, pore size 2.5), and then the particles were washed with saline solution (1.2 g/ml NaCl and 1.5 g/ml ZnCl) to isolate and separate the microplastics from the dissolved organic material.

The filtered particles were air-dried and examined under a stereomicroscope (HumaScope Stereo, China). Particles were counted (particles/g), and the shape (irregular, filamentous, and rectangular) was recorded. The color percentages were determined.

Digital imaging was performed using a 3MP microscopic camera (Omax A35100), and particle pictures were analyzed using ImageJ to quantify the size of the particles, which were categorized into 3 size groups: very large (1,000–5,000 µm), large (500–1,000 µm), and medium (100–500 µm) particles.

FTIR analysis

The microplastic was washed with zinc chloride (ZnCl₂, ρ=1.5 g/cm³) to separate microplastics (MPs) from other inorganic particles. An FTIR microscope (Bruker HYPERION 3000) equipped with a focal plane array (FPA) detector was used for accurate analysis. The system was calibrated using a background spectrum, and a 15 × or 20 × objective was selected for optimal resolution. Measurements were conducted primarily in transmission mode, though attenuated total reflection (ATR) mode was applied for thicker particles. The filter was placed on a moving stage, and spectra were acquired in FPA mode (64 × 64 detectors) across a spectral range of 4,000–600 cm^-¹ at 4 cm^-¹ resolution (Sparks and Awe, 2022). Automated grid scanning enabled rapid analysis of large filter areas.

Polymer identification and data analysis

Spectral matching was performed using Bruker’s polymer database. Polymer identification followed a stringent three-step protocol: automated matching threshold, visual verification, and differentiation from natural particles (Löder et al., 2015).

Polyethylene (PE) was identified by its characteristic peaks at 2,915 cm^-¹ (asymmetric CH₂ stretch) and 2,848 cm^-¹ (symmetric CH₂ stretch). Nylon was detected based on key absorption bands, including ~3,300 cm^-¹ (N-H stretch) and ~1,630 cm^-¹ (C=O stretch, amide I).

Natural materials such as cellulose were distinguished from synthetic fibers by examining subtle band differences at 1,425 cm^-¹ and 1,051 cm^-¹, False positives were excluded by comparison with reference spectra (Löder et al., 2015).

Risk and contamination analysis

The contamination level of MPs in meat samples was evaluated using the Contamination Factor (CF=Ci/C0), where Ci represented the measured MP concentration, and C0 was the baseline concentration (minimum MP levels expected in uncontaminated samples) (Faisal, et al., 2025).

The pollution load was assessed through PLI: a multiplicative method (PLI=√CF): CF, Contamination factors for MPs in sample (Lithner et al., 2011). Human exposure risk was estimated by calculating annual MP intake (Σ meat consumption × MP concentration) following ESF guidelines and Li et al. (2015).

Statistical analyses

Data from this study were analyzed and expressed for each group as mean ± standard deviation, normal distribution confirmed with Shapiro-wilks test, comparisons among cities and tissue types groups were evaluated using one way analysis of variance for numeric data and chi square test for percentages This method facilitated the evaluation of microplastic contamination levels, and potential human food exposure through meat consumption. Statistical analysis performed using (IBM Spss V27, UK) at a significant level of (p < 0.05).

Ethical approval

Not needed for this study; however, this public health study was conducted in accordance with the core principles of public health ethics, including a focus on community benefit, justice, equity, and minimizing harm.

---

Results

This study intended to evaluate microplastic contamination in Awassi sheep edible tissues in the governorate of Nineveh. Samples were collected from local butcheries and slaughterhouses in Mosul, Tel Keif, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya cities (Fig. 1).

Microplastics concentrations and size distribution

The results of microplastic filtration revealed a higher concentration of the particles in Badush city (p < 0.05) compared to the other studied cities for meat, liver, and intestine, with no significant differences were observed in Mosul, Tel Keif, or Al-Hamdaniya (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Concentration of microplastics in Awassi sheep edible tissues across four Iraqi cities. The bar chart represents microplastic contamination (particles /g) in the meat, liver, and intestine, collected from Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya, different letters above bars within the same tissue indicate significant difference among cities at (p < 0.05).

The microscopic examination revealed the presence of three size groups of microplastic: the very large (1,000–5,000 µm), large (500–1,000 µm), and medium (100–500 µm). Medium-sized particles showed the highest prevalence percentage (52%–77%), followed by large (5%–29%), and very large (5%–20%) types. The large particles were most abundant in the samples from Badush city, the percentages in the meat, liver, and intestine were 19.8%, 17.8%, and 25.8%, respectively. These values were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than Mosul, Tel Keif, and Al-Hamdaniya. Large particles were higher in the liver in all studied cities compared to meat and intestine samples (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Percentage of very large microplastic particles (>1,000 μm) in Awassi sheep tissues across studied cities. The bar chart illustrates the percentage distribution of microplastic particles in the meat, liver, and intestine. collected from Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya. Different letters above bars within the same tissue indicate significant difference among cities at (p < 0.05).

Very large particles were higher in Badush and Tel Keif compared to Mosul and Al-Hamdaniya. They were also abundant in meat samples compared to the liver and intestine samples (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Percentage of large microplastic particles (1,000–500 μm) in Awassi sheep tissues across studied cities. The bar chart illustrates the percentage distribution of microplastic particles in the meat, liver, and intestine. collected from Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya. Different letters above bars within the same tissue indicate significant difference among cities at (p < 0.05).

On the other hand, medium-sized particles were nearly equal in liver samples in all cities, which was 52%–65%, and Badush recorded the highest percentage in meat and intestine samples compared to the other cities (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Percentage of medium- sized microplastic particles (500–100 μm) in Awassi sheep tissues across studied cities. The bar chart illustrates the percentage distribution of microplastic particles in the meat, liver, and intestine. collected from Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya. Different letters above bars within the same tissue indicate significant difference among cities at (p < 0.05).

Microplastics morphology

The morphological analysis revealed that microplastic particles were different in shape, varying from irregular fragments, filamentous, and rectangular in shape. The percentages were also varied, the irregular shaped microplastics were dominant in the liver and intestine compared to the meat samples (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Morphological characterization of isolated microplastics. The figure presents stereomicroscope images of the microplastic types (fragments, filamentous, and rectangular pieces.) identified, showing the variations in shape and color. Scale bar=100 μm.

Microplastics colors

The colors of the microplastics were also varied, the black and brown colored particles were the most prevalent, while the white, red, and blue were less common. In Badush, the color distribution percentages were 88% for black, 9% for white, 1% for red, and 2% for blue color (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Bar chart illustrates the percentage distribution of microplastic colors in the tissue types meat, liver, and intestine and cross the cities of Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya.

Polymer types (FTIR analysis)

FTIR analysis found that nylon and polyethylene are the primary polymer types that constitute microplastic particles. Nylon was generally more abundant, with significant differences seen among the studied cities. Meat samples from Badush showed the highest nylon contamination compared to Mosul, Tel Keif, and Al-Hamdaniya. Liver contamination was also higher in Badush and Tel Keif compared with other cities, while intestine samples were contaminated in Badush, with no significant differences observed among cities (Fig. 8). The polyethylene contamination was nearly equal in the studied cities for meat samples. While, in the liver and intestine samples, Badush showed higher contamination level compared with the other cities.

Fig. 8. Polymer characterization of isolated microplastics via FTIR spectroscopy. The transmittance spectra (4,000–500 cm^-¹) identify nylon and polyethylene as the primary polymer types found in microplastic particles extracted from Awassi sheep tissues across the studied cities: Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya.

Badush showed equal contamination ratios for nylon and polyethylene in meat samples, while polyethylene contamination was greater in both liver and intestine samples (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Polymer composition of microplastics in sheep tissues across studied cities. The pie chart illustrates the percentage distribution of each identified polymer type (polyethylene, nylon) within the total microplastic load found in tissue types: meat, liver, and intestine. The chart combines data from Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, Al-Hamdaniya.

Contamination and risk factor

The CF was higher in Badush compared to Mosul, Tel Keif, and Al-Hamdaniya in the meat, liver, and intestine samples, while there were no differences among the other cities. However, the PLI was greater in Badush and Tel Keif, ranging from 3–4, and significant differences were evident in the meat between Badush and the other cities. The pollution index was equal in Mosul, Tel Keif, and Al-Hamdaniya for the liver samples, but differed from Badush. Pollution in the intestinal samples was significantly higher in Badush and Al-Hamdaniya compared to Mosul and Tel Keif, respectively (Figs. 10 and 11).

Fig. 10. Percentage of microplastic contamination factor (CF) in Awassi sheep edible tissues across studied cities. The bar chart illustrates the percentage distribution of contamination factor in the meat, liver, and intestine. collected from Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya. Different letters above bars within the same tissue indicate significant difference among cities at (p < 0.05).

Fig. 11. Percentage of microplastic pollution load index (PLI) in Awassi sheep edible tissues across studied cities. The bar chart illustrates the percentage distribution of pollution load index in the meat, liver, and intestine. collected from Telkeif, Mosul, Badush, and Al-Hamdaniya. Different letters above bars within the same tissue indicate significant difference among cities at (p < 0.05).

Human exposure risk was estimated by calculating the annual MP intake (Σ meat consumption × MP concentration) following EFS (2014 and Li et al. (2015) guidelines. The average meat consumption worldwide reached 44.5 kg (OECD, 2022), while liver and animal offal consumption reached 9 kg annually. In meat the annual human exposure rate was significantly higher in Badush. Annual mass intake in Badush was calculated as (44,500 g/year (meat) × 0.35 particle/g (MP)=15,575 particle/g annually, the average particle mass was 0.1 mg/particle (1,557.5 mg) equivalent to 1.55 g of MP each year. Compared to 12,015 (1.2), 10,680 (1.06) and 9,790 (0.97) particles (g.) in Tel Keif, Mosul, Al-Hamdaniya cities.

Microplastic exposure risk in the liver samples were higher in Badush 4,230 (0.42) particles/year (g.) compared to Tel Keif, Mosul, and Al-Hamdaniya 3,510 (0.35), 3,240 (0.32) and 3,060 (0.30) particles/year (g.) respectively. Similarly, intestine samples were higher in Badush 3,600 (0.36) particles/year (g.) than in, Tel Keif, Mosul and Al-Hamdaniya 2,880 (0.28), 2,610 (0.26), and 2,430 (0.24) particles /year (g.), respectively.

---

Discussion

This study was conducted to detect microplastic contamination in the Awassi sheep edible tissues in Nineveh governorate.

Microplastic concentrations and size distribution

The observation revealed that the microplastics concentration was the highest in Badush city, followed by Mosul, Tel Keif, and Al-Hamdaniya, and the microplastics in the liver tissue was the higher compared to the meat and intestine in all studied cities. The presence of microplastic particles in the liver is mentioned by many previous studies on fish, seabirds, and mammals (Alalaf et al., 2025: Lusher et al., 2015; Avio et al., 2017), the authors suggesting that the liver is the main site for microplastic accumulation in different animals. Another study on cow and sheep tissues by Bahrani et al. (2024), reported that the concentration of microplastic was 0.14 particles/g in cow tissues and 0.13 particles/g in sheep tissues, which is nearly similar to our data for meat in Tel Keif. This indicated that microplastic contamination is a worldwide issue.

The concentrations in our study are lower than those found in some other food products. The study on Iranian sausages found that microplastic concentration was 25.7 particles/kg under light microscopy and 55.45 particles/kg with fluorescent microscopy (Pirsaheb et al., 2024). The disagreement with our study may result from the secondary contamination during food processing and packaging, the studies on packaged meats mentioned the presence of particles that originated from the packaging materials themselves. Kedzierski et al. (2020) reported that the microplastics trapped between the meat and the sealing film.

Our study revealed that the percentage of medium-sized particles was the highest in all samples, but large particles were more abundant in Badush. The higher prevalence of large particles in Badush, particularly in the liver, referred to the intensive contamination with larger plastic fragments in that area. We suggest that local environmental contamination such as urban industrial waste, contaminated water sources, or the improper agricultural using of sewage sludge as fertilizer act as the main source of large plastic contamination. The high percentage of small and medium-sized particles pose a great health risk due to their ability to cross membrane barriers and accumulate in tissues, this point explained by (Sun et al., 2024). Small particles result from the continuous environmental breakdown of larger plastics. The food contamination suggested that standard food processing does not remove microplastic.

Microplastics morphology

Regarding shape, our morphological analysis revealed irregular fragments, filamentous strands, and rectangular pieces. Irregularly shaped microplastics were the most dominant in the liver and intestine, while filamentous strands (fibers) were also noted in the raw data. This is consistent with other research that frequently identifies fibers and fragments as the most common MP shapes in food products. The prevalence of fibers in many studies is often attributed to the use of synthetic textiles and their degradation (Oßmann, 2020). Which contaminate food and the environment. Akanda et al. (2025) study found that plastic mulch and agricultural netting can degrade into small fibers that are ingested by animals later.

Microplastics colors

The colors of the microplastics in our samples were black and brown, with white, red, and blue being less common. This finding agrees with Pirsaheb et al. (2024), study, which found that black MP is the most prevalent color (46%). The high frequency of black microplastics is related to the use of black plastic bags and mulch in agriculture, which degrades and can be ingested by farm animals. The different color distributions observed in various studies, such as blue color in bird’s meat on USA, Florida (Carlin et al., 2020). Highlight how plastic usage patterns can influence the characteristics of microplastic contamination.

Polymer types

FTIR analysis in our study, identified nylon and polyethylene as the main polymer types, and nylon was more abundant overall. Kedzierski et al. (2020) reported that packaged meat contaminated with polystyrene (XPS), which came directly from the trays. While Pirsaheb et al. (2024) studied Iranian sausages identified polyethylene and polystyrene as the primary MP constituents. The dominance of nylon in our study revealed that the source of contamination may be connected to nylon bags that commonly used locally, meat cutting trays, and farming equipment, where nylon is used in these applications.

Contamination and risk factor

Microplastic exposure is considered as a significant public health threat that led to cellular damage, chronic inflammation, and oxidative stress. Ullah et al. (2023) and Zheng et al. (2024) reported that microplastics in arteries increased the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, or death. Research highlights their role in neurotoxicity due to accumulation in the brain and nervous tissue, leading to dementia and endocrine disruption.

The human exposure risk was evaluated by calculating the annual microplastic intake, which was significantly higher in Badush compared to the other cities. The data also indicated that human exposure, particularly in children, is highest through the consumption of meat. This is a critical point that aligns with other studies, including animals examined meat from Bushehr port (Bahrani et al., 2024). Our study, similar to others, notes that there is no information on the long-term health effects of MPs in humans (Smith et al., 2018; Toussaint et al., 2019). The ingestion of MPs show different adverse effects in animals, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and disruption of organ function. These particles absorb toxic chemicals and additives (Ragusa et al., 2020). Our findings, therefore, underscore the urgent need for a better understanding of the entire food supply chain to reduce MP contamination and protect public health (Prata et al., 2020).

Study limitations included its focus on Awassi sheep from four Iraqi cities, understatement of small MPs due to dependence on stereoscopic observations and visual counting, unclear MP sources, and the need for toxicological assessment.

Future research should expand geographical regions and species, using advanced detection methods (e.g., Raman microscopy), study the contamination pathways, and assess long-term health impacts. Authorities should establish MP limits in food and regulate agricultural plastics, while promoting public awareness campaigns to reduce plastic pollution in the food chain.

---

Conclusion

The prevalence of medium sized microplastic particles required an urgent response due to their potential biological toxicity. The identification of nylon and polyethylene in animal tissues, reflects the intensive use of plastics in agricultural activities and food packaging, which is the main source of contamination, the results of this research focus on the importance of microplastic pollution as an emerging threat to livestock health and food security. Future research should study the environmental contamination which is the main source of animal tissues contamination, the health hazard and the toxicological effects and gather efforts among scientists, food producers, and governmental agencies to maintain public health and agricultural sustainability.

---

Acknowledgment

The authors thank the staff of the Animal Production Department, College of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Mosul, for their support and encouragement.

Conflict of interest

Authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Funding

The costs of study totally covered by the authors.

Authors’ contributions

SS propose the initial idea of the research, designed the research plan, collected the samples, and wrote the first draft. AA contributed to quantitative stereoscopic calculations, FTIR output interpretations, and statistical analysis. Both authors wrote the final manuscript version and performed revisions.

Data availability

Authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.

---

References

Alalaf, A.S. and Alnuaimy, R. 2025. Evaluating The Influence of Vitamin E and Selenium on The Uterine Health of Adult Female Goats: a Histological Study. Egypt. J. Vet. Sci. 56(8), 1745–1753.

Alalaf, A.S., Taha, A.H. and Sheet, O.H. 2025. Genotypic characteristics and phylogenetic tree analysis of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from sheep subclinical mastitis milk. Open. Vet. J. 15(1), 289.

Avio, C.G., Gorbi, S. and Regoli, F. 2017. Plastics and microplastics in the oceans: from emerging pollutants to emerged threat. Mar. Environ. Res. 128, 2–11; doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.05.012

Bahrani, F., Mohammadi, A., Dobaradaran, S., De-la-Torre, G.E., Arfaeinia, H., Ramavandi, B., Saeedi, R. and Tekle-Röttering, A. 2024. Occurrence of microplastics in edible tissues of livestock (cow and sheep). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 31(14), 22145–22157; doi: 10.1007/s11356-024-32424-9

Banik, P., Anisuzzaman, M., Bhattacharjee, S., Marshall, D.J., Yu, J., Nur, A.A.U. , Jolly, Y.N., Al- Mamun, Paray, B.A., Bappy, M.M., Bhuiyan, T. and Hossain, M.B. 2024. Quantification, characterization and risk assessment of microplastics from five major estuaries along the northern Bay of Bengal coast. Environ. Pollut. 342, 123036; doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2023.123036

Chen, L., Sabonchi, A.K.S. and Nanehkaran, Y.A. 2024. COVID-19 pandemic microplastics environmental impacts predicted by deep random forest (DRF) predictive model. Environ. Sci. Eur. 36(1), 193; doi:10.1186/s12302-024-01019-z

China. Environmental Pollution, 207, 190–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.09.018

EFS–A – European Food Safety Authority. 2014. Scientific opinion on health benefits of exposure to methylmercury. EFSA J. 12(7), 3761

Faisal, M., Lipi, J.A., Rima, N.N., Riya, K.K., Hossain, M.K., Paray, B.A., Arai, T., Yu, J. and Hossain, M.B. 2025. Microplastic contamination and ecological risk assessment in sediments and waters of ship-dismantling yards along the Bay of Bengal. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 217, 118032; doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.118032

Frias, J.P.G.L. and Nash, R. 2019. Microplastics: finding a consensus on the definition. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 138, 145–147; doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.022

Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R. and Law, K.L. 2017. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci. Adv. 3(7), e1700782; doi:10.1126/sciadv.1700782

Hamza, A. 2020. Municipal solid waste quantity, ingredients, and site disposal problems in Pshdar District in Sulaimanyah: iraqi Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Kufa. J. Eng. 11(4), 1–18; doi:10.30572/2018/KJE/110401

Hasan, A., Altaey, O. and Hasso, A. 2024. Analysis of Chukar Partridge Wing Morphology and Morphometry and their Implications in Flight Pattern and Behavior. Egypt. J. Vet. Sci. 55(7), 1961–1974; doi:10.21608/EJVS.2024.264079.1792

Hossain, M.S., Sobhan, F., Uddin, M.N., Sharifuzzaman, S.M., Chowdhury, S.R., Sarker, S. and Chowdhury, M.S.N. 2019. Microplastics in fishes from the Northern Bay of Bengal. Sci. Total Environ. 690, 821–830; doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.065

Kedzierski, M., Lechat, B., Sire, O., Le Maguer, G., Le Tilly, V. and Bruzaud, S. 2020. Microplastic contamination of packaged meat: occurrence and associated risks. Food Packag. Shelf Life 24, 100489; doi:10.1016/j.fpsl.2020.100489

Kubíková, Ľ. and Rudý, S. 2024. The current global situation of plastics and forecast of plastic waste. In EDAMBA 2023: 26th International Scientific Conference for Doctoral Students and Post-Doctoral Scholars. University of Economics in Bratislava, Department of Corporate Financial Management, Faculty of Business Economics with seat in Košice, Tajovského. Vol. 2023, p: 26.

Kutralam-Muniasamy, G., Shruti, V.C., Pérez-Guevara, F. and Roy, P.D. 2023. Microplastic diagnostics in humans: “The 3Ps” Progress, problems, and prospects. Sci. Total Environ. 856, 159164; doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159164

Li, J., Yang, D., Li, L., Jabeen, K. and Shi, H. 2015. Microplastics in commercial bivalves from China. Environ. Pollut. 207, 190–195.

Lithner, D., Larsson. and Dave, G. 2011. Environmental and health hazard ranking and assessment of plastic polymers based on chemical composition. Sci. Environ. 409(18), 3309–3324; doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.04.038

Löder, M.G.J., Kuczera, M., Mintenig, S., Lorenz, C. and Gerdts, G. 2015. Focal plane array detector-based micro-Fourier-transform infrared imaging for the analysis of microplastics in environmental samples. Environ. Chem. 12(5), 563–581; doi:10.1071/EN14205

Lusher, A.L., Hernandez-Milian, G., O’Brien, J., Berrow, S., O’Connor, I. and Officer, R. 2015. Microplastic and macroplastic ingestion by a deep diving, oceanic cetacean: the True’s beaked whale Mesoplodon mirus. Environ. Pollut. 199, 185–191; doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2015.01.023

Marfella, R., Prattichizzo, F., Sardu, C., Fulgenzi, G., Graciotti, L., Spadoni, T., D’Onofrio, N., Scisciola, L., La Grotta, R., Frigé, C., Pellegrini, V., Municinò, M., Siniscalchi, M., Spinetti, F., Vigliotti, G., Vecchione, C., Carrizzo, A., Accarino, G., Squillante, A., Spaziano, G. and Paolisso, G. 2024. Microplastics and nanoplastics in atheromas and cardiovascular events. New. England. J. Med. 390(10), 900–910; doi:10.1056/nejmoa2309822

OECD. 2022. Meat consumption (indicator). Available via https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-fao-agricultural-outlook-2025-2034_601276cd-en/full-report/meat_5462e384.html

Oßmann, B.E. 2020. Microplastics characterization by Raman microscopy. In Handbook of Microplastics in the Environment. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing Springer Nature Group, pp: 1–28; doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-10618-8_36-1

Park, T.J., Lee, S.H., Lee, M.S., Lee, J.K., Park, J.H. and Zoh, K.D. 2020. Distributions of microplastics in surface water, fish, and sediment in the vicinity of a sewage treatment plant. Water 12(12), 3333; doi:10.3390/w12123333

Pirsaheb, M., Nouri, M., Massahi, T., Makhdoumi, P., Baban, N.A. and Hossini, H. 2024. Microplastics contamination in the most popular brands of Iranian sausages and evaluation of its human exposure. Heliyon 10(14), 10; doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34363

Prata, J.C., Da Costa, J.P., Lopes, I., Duarte, A.C. and Rocha-Santos, T. 2020. Environmental exposure to microplastics: an overview on possible human health effects. Sci. Total Environ. 702, 134455; doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455

Ragusa, A., Svelato, A., Santacroce, C., Catalano, P., Notarstefano, V., Carnevali, O., Papa, F., Rongioletti, M.C.A., Baiocco, F., Draghi, S., D’Amore, E., Rinaldo, D., Matta, M. and Giorgini, E. 2020. Plasticenta: first evidence of microplastics in human placenta. Environ. Intern. 146, 106274; doi:10.1016/j.envint.2020.106274

Rochman, C.M., Brookson, C., Bikker, J., Djuric, N., Earn, A., Bucci, K., Athey, S., Huntington, A., Mcilwraith, H., Munno, K., De Frond, H., Kolomijeca, A., Erdle, L., Grbic, J., Bayoumi, M., Borrelle, S.B., Wu, T., Santoro, S., Werbowski, L.M., Zhu, X., Giles, R.K., Hamilton, B.M., Thaysen, C., Kaura, A., Klasios, N., Ead, L., Kim, J., Sherlock, C., Ho, A. and Hung, C. 2019. Rethinking microplastics as a diverse contaminant suite. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 38(4), 703–711; doi:10.1002/etc.4371

Smith, M., Love, D.C., Rochman, C.M. and Neff, R.A. 2018. Microplastics in seafood and the implications for human health. Curr. Environ. Heal. Rep. 5(3), 375–386; doi:10.1007/s40572-018-0206-z

Sparks, C. and Awe, A. 2022. Concentrations and risk assessment of metals and microplastics from antifouling paint particles in the coastal sediment of a marina in Simon’s Town, South Africa. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29(40), 59996–60011; doi:10.1007/s11356-022-18890-z

Sun, T., Timoneda, A., Banavar, A. and Ovissipour, R. 2024. Enhancing food safety and cultivated meat production: exploring the impact of microplastics on fish muscle cell proliferation and differentiation. Front. Food. Sci. Technol. 4, 1309884; doi:10.3389/frfst.2024.1309884

Thompson, R.C., Swan, S.H., Moore, C.J. and Vom Saal, F.S. 2009. Our plastic age. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. B. Biol. Sci. 364(1526), 1973–1976; doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0054

Toussaint, B., Raffael, B., Angers-Loustau, A., Gilliland, D., Kestens, V., Petrillo, M., Rio-Echevarria, I. M. and Van den Eede, G. 2019. Review of micro-and nanoplastic contamination in the food chain. Food Addit. Contaminants Part A 36(5), 639–673; doi:10.1080/19440049.2019.1583381

Ullah, S., Ahmad, S., Guo, X., Ullah, S., Ullah, S., Nabi, G. and Wanghe, K. 2023. A review of the endocrine disrupting effects of micro and nano plastic and their associated chemicals in mammals. Front. Endocrinol. 13, 1084236.

Wang, F., Wang, B., Duan, L., Zhang, Y., Zhou, Y., Sui, Q., Xu, D., Qu, H. and Yu, G. 2020. Occurrence and distribution of microplastics in domestic, industrial, agricultural and aquacultural wastewater sources: a case study in Changzhou, China. Water. Res. 182, 115956; doi:10.1016/j.watres.2020.115956

Yılmaz, S. and Baytok, E. 2022. Effects of microplastics on animal health and nutrition. J. Fac. Vet. Med. Erciyes. Univ. 19(1), 1–10; doi:10.32707/ercivet.1514425

Zheng, Y., Xu, S., Liu, J. and Liu, Z. 2024. The effects of micro-and nanoplastics on the central nervous system: a new threat to humanity?. Toxicology 504, 153799.

Zuccarello, P., Ferrante, M., Cristaldi, A., Copat, C., Grasso, A., Sangregorio, D., Fiore, M. and Oliveri Conti, G. 2019. Exposure to microplastics (u003c 10 μm) associated to plastic bottles mineral water consumption: the first quantitative study. Water Res. 157, 365–371; doi:10.1016/j.watres.2019.03.091