Open Veterinary Journal, (2026), Vol. 16(4): 1961-1976

Review article

10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i4.1

Animal models for improving reproductive efficiency using medicinal plants: A review

Nada Saad Naji Al–Taee^*

Department of Medical Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology, Al–Qasim Green University, Babylon, Iraq

*Corresponding Author: Nada Saad Naji Al–Taee. Department of Medical Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology, Al–Qasim Green University, Babylon, Iraq. Email: nadanaji [at] biotech.uoqasim.edu.iq

Submitted: 29/11/2025 Revised: 03/03/2026 Accepted: 23/03/2026 Published: 30/04/2026

---

Abstract

The increasing prevalence of male infertility in animals has become a global concern. Recently, the use of herbal medicinal plants to enhance spermatozoa production has attracted increased interest. Therefore, this review aimed to summarize the results of available studies on these medicinal plants and determine the effectiveness and safety of their use in improving the fertility of male animals. Medline/PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases were searched for English articles published during 1983–2024 that contained a number of key terms, including animal fertility, animal reproductive, animal spermatogenesis, and medicinal plants. Finally, these studies included five different medicinal plants, namely, Allium sativum, Apium graveolens, Avena sativa, Lepidium sativum, and Spinacia oleracea, which have a clear effect on animal fertility and efficiency. A total of 127 studies were included, including 69 related to fertility and 58 related to phytochemicals, action mechanism, health benefits, and plant characteristics; in addition to 11 related to infertility were excluded. In conclusion, herbal plants are likely to be beneficial in increasing animal fertility due to their antioxidant function and lack of adverse effects.

Keywords: Animal models, Fertility, Medicinal plants, Animal reproduction.

---

Introduction

Infertility is one of the most serious problems facing some people around the world, and men constitute half of all cases of infertility (Miyamoto et al., 2012). In fact, medicinal plants and other natural products, including their chemical derivatives, account for approximately 50% of all medicines currently used worldwide. The use of medicinal plants in fertility treatment is an alternative to synthetic drugs (Atanasov et al., 2015). Medicinal plants containing known compounds may significantly impact fertility rates. Fertility is significantly influenced by nutrition (Al–Taee, 2019a), hormones, diseases (Al–Taee, 2018; 2019b), lifestyle, medications, and environmental factors (Abdel–Rahman et al., 2000; Al–Mamoori and Al–Taee, 2020). Therefore, the quality and characteristics of semen in these animals must be improved to enhance their reproductive performance and productivity. Among the various therapeutic methods, medicinal herbs are used to treat male infertility in many countries, such as China, India, and several African and Middle Eastern countries (Aliakbari et al., 2016; Amidi et al., 2016). Medicinal plants are more affordable and accessible than surgical and chemical treatments. Antioxidant medicinal herbs are used to treat sexual dysfunction, sperm abnormalities, and ejaculatory and erectile disorders (Amidi et al., 2014; Rezaeian et al., 2016). Given their proven efficacy, few side effects, widespread availability, and relatively low prices compared with synthetic fertility enhancers, there is growing interest in the use of these medicinal plants, herbs, and natural and organic products to improve reproductive performance and alleviate many reproductive disorders. Therefore, this review aimed to study five medicinal plants and their role in improving and treating fertility in living organisms, including mice, rats, rabbits, and other species. In addition, some research related to the plants mentioned in the review demonstrates their anti–fertility activity.

Google Scholar, Science Direct, and PubMed are used for various plant species that influence fertility by their scientific names. Plants with a positive effect on animal fertility were then selected, and articles with various keywords, such as "effects of (plant name) on animal reproductive function, animal reproductive system, or spermatogenesis in male animals." About 126 selected original articles were published between 1983 and 2024 (Fig. 1). After downloading the PDF files, we examined all the articles. A total of 127 studies (Fig. 2): 69 fertility and 58 non-fertility related activities. The information in the selected articles was classified according to the targeted effect of the plant extract on the reproductive function of male animals and the subject (e.g., mice, rats, and rabbits) used to evaluate the potential therapeutic and optimizing activity of the plant extract. What was most striking was the variation in results observed by different researchers at different doses or treatment periods in different experiments and on different animals. Approximately 69 showing a positive effect of these selected medicinal plants on improving or treating animal fertility, including 27 Allium sativum, 15 Apium graveolens, 9 Avena sativa, 11 Lepidium sativum, and 7 Spinacia oleacea (Fig. 3).

Fig. 1. Annual output of research articles from 1983 to 2024 that evaluated five medicinal plants in terms of their fertility activities from 1983 to 2024.

Fig. 2. Research articles that evaluated medicinal plants in terms of fertility and non-fertility related activities.

Fig. 3. Articles that evaluated medicinal plants in terms of their fertility–related activities.

Allium sativum

Various medicinal plants are intended to improve health, but their mechanism of action remains unclear. Garlic, has received particular attention from modern medicine due to its widespread use in the treatment and prevention of certain human diseases, such as cardiovascular and cancer diseases (Hammami and May, 2013a). Allium sativum, also known as garlic, is a member of the Liliaceae family and has been used as a medicinal plant since ancient times (Arzanlou and Bohlooli, 2010). It has been around for 5,000 years and was used by the Babylonians, Vikings, Egyptians, Chinese, Romans, Greeks, and Hindus (Block, 1992). It is a perennial plant with green or pink flowers ranging in height from 100 to 300 cm (Mansouri et al., 2014). Diallyl tetra sulfide is a biologically active organic component of the plant and has antioxidant effects (Ola–Mudathir et al., 2008). Plants contain several microelements and phytochemicals, such as trace elements, vitamins, sulfur, fructans, and flavonoids, which can effectively scavenge free radicals (Khaki et al., 2011). Studies have shown that garlic extracts and their associated organo– sulfur molecules, such as S–allyl cysteine sulfoxide, possess antioxidant properties through their ability to: [1] scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Carmia, 2001), [2] decline ischemia/reperfusion damage, restrain lipid peroxidation, and prevent oxidative modification of low–density lipoproteins (Kim et al., 2001), and [3] prevent oxidative DNA damage (Shaarawy et al., 2009). Furthermore, garlic extract inhibits the formation of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anions by increasing the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase (Borek, 2001). Garlic also helps increase fertility, which may be due to its antioxidant function. However, further clinical trials are needed (Musavi et al., 2018). Several studies have investigated the effect of garlic supplements or garlic combinations and other supplements on male fertility in different animal models. Owing to its few side effects, as well as its content of fructose, flavonoids, sulfur compounds, and vitamins, the plant can help neutralize free radicals (Mohammadi et al., 2013). Table 1 summarizes the therapeutic uses of A. sativum and its effect on animal fertility, as described in the literature.

Table 1. Therapeutic use of garlic in animal models of reproductive disorders.

Use of Allium sativum in mice

Ghafil and Al–Taee (2020) showed that the highest effect of A. sativum leaf extract on animal fertility was at the highest concentration in males treated with 6 mg/kg lead. A study of Al–Bekairi et al. (1990) showed that garlic (A. sativum) had a clear effect on sperm in the epididymis, in mice treated with estradiol, and on overall toxicity. It should be noted that the administration of A. sativum extract improved sperm parameters, such as sperm concentration, motility (Salah et al. 2014), and antioxidant content (Soleimanzadeh et al., 2018), due to its antioxidant function against busulfan–induced testicular damage in animals.

Use of Allium sativum in rats

Powdered garlic and raw garlic may contain the same active ingredients, and garlic supplements may inhibit protein catabolism and enhance protein synthesis by regulating hormonal activity through the stimulation of steroid hormones (Yuriko et al., 2001). Injecting A. sativum fresh extract resulted in a marked improvement in lindane–induced changes in sperm parameters (Hfaiedh et al., 2011). Its consumption in conjunction with A. sativum or S. maxima resulted in a significant increase in antioxidant enzymes such as CAT and SOD, providing protection against lead–induced reproductive damage in male rats (Abdraboua et al., 2019). Asadpour et al. (2013) indicated that vitamin E, and to a lesser extent, an aqueous extract of A. sativum, improved fertility in rat testes against oxidative stress induced by lead treatment and enhanced rat spermatogenesis (Sajitha et al. 2010). Furthermore, A. sativum restores biochemical alterations occurring in testicular tissue to near–normal levels (Salem and Salem, 2016). However, dietary supplementation with A. sativum altered hormones correlated with protein synthesis in male rats fed a protein-rich diet (Oi et al., 2001). Lotfi et al. (2021) reported that daily oral intake of A. sativum reduced lipid peroxidation and increased the antioxidant defense mechanism. These findings indicate that garlic can lower the severity of damage in the testicular tissue of diabetic animals through its hypoglycemic, antioxidant, and anti–inflammatory properties. Osonuga et al. (2020) found that garlic may play beneficial roles in reproductive functions; the mechanisms for these effects may involve the interplay of many currently unknown factors. Different plant preparations, including dried garlic powder, raw garlic, aged garlic extract, and heated garlic juice, have been reported to be effective in restoring testicular function after treating hypogonadism in male animals (Nasr, 2017). The administration of cooked garlic affects the proliferation of germ cells in the epididymis and testicular tubules (Bahrami et al., 2014), enhances spermatogenesis resulting from cadmium–Cd⁺² poisoning (Mbegbu et al., 2021), and increases the antioxidant content in the seminal fluid. It also mitigates the effects of chromium chloride on the total antioxidant status (Ghalehkandi, 2014). El–Shafey et al. (2009) showed an increase in sex hormone–binding globulin levels, which in turn binds to more testosterone hormone, thereby stimulating the secretion of more testosterone into the plasma.

Use of Allium sativum in rabbits

A previous study showed that lead (Pb) supplementation affects sperm motility, as observed through impaired mitochondrial function. A 2–week diet containing garlic restored sperm parameters to near–normal levels (Ouarda and Abdennour, 2011). Ekuma et al. (2017) showed that both garlic meal and vitamin E improved semen production in terms of quantity, quality, and reproductive performance. Furthermore, the combination of the two treatments produced even better results. Feeding male rabbits with fresh garlic bulbs resulted in improvements in sperm parameters, including sperm concentration and mean semen volume (Shinkut et al., 2016), and increased sperm count in the right epididymis and testis compared to the left epididymis (Olojo et al., 2022), along with improved semen characteristics (El–Amary and Abou–Warda, 2007; El–Kelawy et al., 2020), in addition to an increase in total spermatozoa functional (El–Kholy et al., 2021).

Use of Allium sativum in other species

Okoro et al. (2016) reported that daily fresh plant administration improved fertility in breeding Koicock–roosters. Allium sativum L bulb appeared to have very promising results in spermicidal activity in vitro in ram (Chakrabarti et al., 2003).

Apium graveolens

Human fertility and infertility are important and complex issues in medical science. Many natural plants and medicinal herbs are believed to reduce (Dashti–Rahmatabadi et al., 2012) or increase fertility in traditional medicine (Kianbakht and Huseini, 2012). Apium graveolens contains several known compounds that may affect fertility rates (Kooti et al., 2018). The plant is a member of the Apiaceae family, with a biennial, herbaceous, branched stem, ranging in height from 20 to 60 cm (Zargari, 1996). Celery stems and leaves contain numerous phenolic compounds. Most flavonoids in celery leaves are apigenin and apiin (Kitajima et al., 2003). Root and leaf extracts of this plant have also been found to be good scavengers of DPPH–2,2–diphenyl–1–picrylhydrazyl and OH free radicals (hydroxyl radicals, •OH), reducing the severity of liposome peroxidation, suggesting the plant’s protective antioxidant activity (Popovic et al., 2006; Fazala et al., 2012). The sperm plasma membrane is susceptible to oxidative damage due to its high content of unsaturated fatty acids, which results in decreased sperm motility and viability (Sikka, 1996). The use of antioxidant compounds enhances sperm function and fertility. Celery flavonoids have the ability to possess antioxidant properties and destroy free radicals (Sultana et al., 2005). Flavonoid compounds are not synthesized by the human body, so they must be obtained through diet. Flavonoids and phenolic compounds also have protective properties, such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antimutagenic, anticoagulant, anticancer, antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, and antiinflammatory properties (Fazala et al., 2012; Asadi–Samani et al., 2013). Table 2 shows the role of plants in animal fertility.

Table 2. Therapeutic use of celery in animal models of reproductive disorders.

Use of Apium graveolens in mice

Apium graveolens is known for its beneficial impacts on the reproductive system, with studies focusing primarily and significantly on male fertility. Kerishchi and Nasri (2014) demonstrated that A. graveolens has a significant effect on spermatogenesis and sperm motility due to its effect on the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis in male albino mice. Another study by Jinan and Al–Taee (2020) conducted that there was a direct impact of the hydroalcoholic extract of A. graveolens leaves on sperm parameters in male animals at different doses given to male mice compared with control mice treated with 6 mg/kg of lead. The study indicated that the plant had the highest effect at the highest concentration targeted in the study. According to the results of a study by Jambor et al. (2021), the use of the ethanol extract of A. graveolens significantly elevated cell membrane integrity and cell viability. Furthermore, the balanced concentration ratio may support Leydig cell function, steroidogenesis, and all essential parameters that may clearly improve reproductive functions.

Use of Apium graveolens in rats

The daily administration of celery leaf extract (A. graveolens) improves fertility due to its flavonoid and antioxidant content, suggesting that this plant may be beneficial for fertility treatment in both sexes (Kooti et al., 2014a,b). Celery consumption also mitigated the damaging effects of propylene glycol on the testes and germ cells and improved spermatogenesis (Kooti et al., 2014c,d). These findings are consistent with those of previous research on the effects of celery on testicular toxicity caused by other toxic chemicals in adult rats. Crude A. graveolens extract protects the testes from sodium valproate (SVP), as demonstrated by Hamza and Amin (2007), and from di (2–ethylhexyl) phthalate (Helal, 2014; Madkour, 2012). Pretreatment with A. graveolens oil and vitamin E demonstrated a protective effect against genital SVP-induced reproductive toxicity (Shalaby and El Zorba, 2010; Wahba, 2011). Celery oil’s protective effects can be attributed to its antioxidant properties and the androgenic activities of its constituents, apigenin, limonene, and phthalide glycosides. Aljamal et al. (2023) indicated that celery may help improve male fertility and prevent diabetes complications in diabetic male animals. Consuming A. graveolens leaf extract may also improve sperm formation and may be beneficial for some sperm fertility parameters (Hardani et al., 2015).

Use of Apium graveolens in other species

Saed et al. (2018) indicated a tendency toward improved reproductive performance when broiler males were supplied with ground A. graveolens seeds or ginger as dietary supplements.

Avena sativa

Recently, the use of herbal plants as a source of antioxidants has gained significant attention. Several medicinal plants and herbs have a clear positive effect on animal reproduction. Avena sativa was mentioned in a study by Al–Snafi (2015). Avena sativa, also known as oats, belongs to the Poaceae family and is one of the most important cultivated crops for its seeds and fodder, as well as for human consumption as oatmeal (Ihsan et al., 2021). They are also considered a healthy food and represent an environmentally friendly pasture, resisting both soil salinity and desertification. They play an important role in promoting pasture cultivation and providing livestock with reserve fodder during the winter (Yao et al., 2024). Oats are a valuable source of soluble dietary fiber, particularly beta–glucan, which has diverse functional properties and is extremely important in the nutrition of living organisms, including humans. Oats contain high concentrations of antioxidants. Avenanthramides (AVAs) are unique compounds found in oats and are potent antioxidants with high antioxidant activity in living organisms (humans). Owing to their nutritional benefits, oat–based foods have gained widespread popularity as functional foods with high probiotic potential (Alemayehu et al., 2023). Many compounds in oats protect grain fats from oxidation. These antioxidant compounds include phenolic chemicals (Peterson, 2001), such as oat avenanthramides (polyphenols), phytic sterols, acids, flavonoids, and vitamin E (tocotrienols and tocopherols). The ability and effectiveness of plant antioxidants to scavenge free radicals and protect plants from oxidative damage are transferred to humans when they consume oats or other foods rich in these compounds (Ryan, 2007). Therefore, oats play a positive and effective role in maintaining human health (Rasane et al., 2015). It also has a high nutritional value and various clear uses, such as making oat straw and silage used as bedding. It can be eaten as a whole grain, providing the body with fats, amino acids, fiber, vitamins, polyphenols, and minerals (Clemens and van Klinken, 2014; Mushtaq and Mehfuza, 2014). The plant is manufactured worldwide as a dietary supplement. It has several physiological benefits, including immune–modulatory, anti–inflammatory, antioxidant, anti–diabetic, and anti-cholestero effects (Singh et al., 2013). The plant is also known as a natural aphrodisiac (Malviya et al., 2011). Table 3 illustrates the effect of A. sativa on fertility.

Table 3. Therapeutic use of oat in animal models of reproductive disorders.

Use of Avena sativa in mice

Treatment with phenolic extract of A. sativa showed a significant effect on the fertility of white mice, through improvement in testosterone (T) concentration and sperm parameters: sperm concentration, motility, and viability. In addition to a significant decrease in sperm abnormalities (Yassir and AL–Taee, 2022; Yassir et al., 2023). Furthermore, it was discovered that A. sativa oil could improve histological changes in testes induced by delta methrin by observing the decrease in LP–lipid peroxidation and improvement in motility, total sperm density, and sperm morphology of albino mice, indicating its antioxidant function (Halima et al., 2014).

Use of Avena sativa in rats

Saka et al. (2016) evaluated the effectiveness of a daily dose of A. sativa as a dietary and nutrient supplement in reducing fluoride–induced infertility in male albino rats. This was achieved by minimizing damage to the reproductive organs and reducing the effect of the compound on sperm parameters. Furthermore, Akdoğan et al. (2018) indicated the positive effects of the plant against testicular damage caused by a cholesterol–rich diet. This may be due to AVAs being a major component of the total phenolic compounds in plant oats. In a study conducted by El–Amir et al. (2019), it was shown that these compounds improve sperm parameters and degenerative changes in the testes and increase sperm viability at all-time points compared to the cisplatin–CP cohort. Pretreatment with AVAs of A sativa oil, in combination with thymoquinone of N. sativa, showed a protective impact against titanium dioxide nanoparticles in rat testes (Hassanein and El–Amir, 2017).

Use of Avena sativa in other species

According to a study conducted by Ali and Banana (2020), N–acetylcysteine and the aqueous extract of oat seeds were added to Tris–extender, which played an important role in improving some PC semen characteristics in frozen Holstein bull semen. Soto et al. (2009) also demonstrated the effective use of some homeopathic preparations used directly on sperm cells. Similar results were obtained using A. sativa in swine semen. The birth rate was 83%, in addition to improved sperm strength and motility. They indicate that the application of plant preparation directly to sperm cells can improve birth rates in technically swine animal farms. Oat compounds can be applied as therapeutic and homeostatic agents directly in sperm cells to improve birth rates in technical animal farms.

Lepidium sativum

Medicinal plants and herbs have received significant and widespread attention as food additives and spices for animals and humans, respectively (Elmahdi et al., 2014). The usefulness of garden cress as a medicinal plant has multiplied. A literature review on the medicinal uses of this plant has shown that it is one of the most widely applied medicinal plants in Ayurveda, folk medicine, and other traditional medicine systems. Following several claims about its diverse properties and traditional medicinal qualities, extensive efforts have been made by several pharmacological studies and clinical trials to verify the plant’s efficacy as a therapeutic and improvement agent (Mali et al., 2007). Lepidium sativum Linn., a member of the Brassicaceae family, is an edible herb related to watercress and mustard, with a pungent, spicy taste and aroma. The seeds of this plant are traditionally used to treat wounds, sprains, asthma, bronchitis, and coughs. The plant is also useful as an aphrodisiac, diuretic, abortifacient, digestive tonic, antibacterial, expectorant, laxative, gastroprotective, and stomach tonic. Its seeds are said to be rich in amino acids, terpenoids, vitamins, steroids, proteins, and saponin glycosides (Shah et al., 2021). The plant seeds have a high nutritional value (Kharkwa et al., 2021), containing 5.67% moisture, 29.06% protein, 5.8% ash, 6.76% crude fiber, 20.55% crude fat, and 38.26% carbohydrates. It also contains a large amount of essential fatty acids, including 11.16% linoleic acid, 29.79% linolenic acid, and 12.89% arachidic acid, as well as different minerals, including a high percentage of calcium (350.87 mg/100 g) and phosphorus (2 313 mg/100 g). Garden cress is a fast–growing annual herb known for its effects on the male reproductive system and is used to enhance the production of animal sperm. It is rich in aspartic acids, glutamic and palmitic acids, as well as stearic acids, and terpenoids and phenolic compounds that act as antioxidants (Painuli et al., 2022). Many of these uses have been scientifically validated using different in vivo and in vitro studies, and this review has comprehensively compiled those (Kumar et al., 2022). Table 4 summarizes the review concerning the effect of L. sativum on fertility.

Table 4. Therapeutic garden cress in reproductive disorders animal models.

Use of Lepidium sativum in mice

Asi et al. (2021) revealed that daily coenzyme–Q10 administration with L. sativum cress seeds improved reproductive function and increased hypothalamic pituitary–gonadal axis activity. Another animal study by Ibraheem et al. (2017) examined the importance of using the aqueous extract of garden cress (L. sativum) on males and found that the antioxidant activity of this extract decreases sperm apoptosis. Furthermore, L. sativum administration alleviated the apparent testicular oxidative damage seen in diabetic mice (Abu–Khudir et al., 2023). This is because the L. sativum microgreen plant extract is rich in 4–OH benzoic acid, ferulic acid, and resveratrol and has an important antioxidant function. While Jambor et al. (2022) demonstrated that experimental low doses of garden cress (L. sativum) could positively impact on TM₃ Leydig cells in male mice. However, biochemical measurements indicated significant antioxidant action and rich bioactive molecule content at the doses used, and the intracellular response of the cultured model was determined over time. The Al-Aubody (2024) experiment indicated a significant improvement in the testicular tissue of animals using L. sativum. Thanks to its role as a free radical scavenger, sodium nitrate removed the negative impact on semen and blood parameters.

Use of Lepidium sativum in rats

The potential protective efficacy of the daily administration of L. sativum seeds via forced feeding in streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rats has been demonstrated through histopathological examination and epididymal morphology studies (Kamani et al., 2017) or through a protective effect on spermatogenesis (Faghani et al., 2013). Furthermore, the consumption of L. sativum did not produce any toxic effects in male or female rats; therefore, garden cress (L. sativum) can be considered nontoxic and safe. Datta et al. (2011) justified this by stating that these data related to acute and subchronic toxicity studies of medicinal plants are necessary to assess their safety for humans, especially for use in pharmaceutical preparations.

Use of Lepidium sativum in rabbits

An experiment conducted by Naji and Shumran (2013) showed an improvement in the histological activity of both the testes and epididymis, which may be due to the presence of tocopherol in plant seeds. Another increase in all testicular sperm characteristics was observed in male animals after daily administration of L. sativum tocopherol extract (Naji and Abood, 2013). Alalwany et al. (2021) indicated that daily administration of a phenolic extract at low concentrations may not be harmful to the structure of rabbit testes.

Spinacia oleracea

Spinach, also known as S. oleracea, is a diploid, wind-pollinated crop and an important leaf vegetable. Leaf traits such as leaf length, leaf width, and petiole length are commercially important (Liu et al., 2021). It is an economically important winter leaf vegetable. The demand for this plant is higher worldwide due to its high nutritional content. Spinach is eaten cooked or raw and is used in salads (Bhattarai and Shi, 2021). Spinach has a high phytochemical content, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, and ascorbic acid. However, this content depends on various factors, such as climatic conditions, genotype, cultural practices, storage temperature, harvesting, and time (Salehi et al., 2019). It is rich in micronutrients, including folic acid, vitamins A, B, E, and C; oxalic acid; and iron, calcium, zinc, potassium, phosphorus, and sodium (Fu et al., 2011). It has various pharmacological therapeutic activities, such as antiproliferative, antioxidant, anti–inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and antihistamine activities (Verma, 2018). Its antioxidant function prevents free radical formation, which in turn prevents autoxidation. The plant also contains a highly effective natural antioxidant system (NAO). The expected physiological role of the NAO system as an antioxidant has been noted in numerous in vivo and in vitro experiments (Breitbart et al., 2001; Lomnitski et al., 2003). Bioactive and phytochemical compounds derived from plants have the potential to [a] scavenge ROS and prevent oxidative damage at the macromolecular level, [b] modulate the activity and expression of genes involved in reproduction, inflammation, metabolism, and antioxidant defense, and [c] decrease food intake by stimulating the satiety hormones secretion (Roberts and Moreau, 2016). Table 5 summarizes the review concerning the effect of Spinacia oleracea on fertility.

Table 5. Therapeutic spinach in reproductive disorders animal models.

Use of Spinacia oleracea in mice

Orally administered spinach oil extract (S. oleracea) protects against radiation–induced stress in male albino mice through biochemical and histological changes (Yadav, 2016). The protective effect of S. oleracea is due to the antioxidant mechanism of beta–carotene and the synergistic impact of the other components, which is believed to involve quenching singlet oxygen, removing free radicals, and breaking the chain of reactions during lipid peroxidation (Gerster, 1993). While daily intake of spinach protects against different biochemical changes in the testes of male mice, this is probably due to the synergistic impact of the antioxidants found in plants, such as carotenoids (lutein, beta–carotene, and zeaxanthin), high protein content, vitamin C, and minerals (Sisodia et al., 2008), or overall due to S. oleracea effect on the mice axis of hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis, which in turn may influence reproductive ability (Matboo and Modaresi, 2016). Male California voles fed fresh spinach showed continued reproductive system integrity regardless of photoperiod. This may be due to the presence of green plants counteracting the inhibitory effect of short-day lengths (Nelson et al., 1883).

Use of Spinacia oleacea in rats

Spinach administration also resulted in the development of seminiferous tubules with an increased number of mature sperm within their lumen and approximately 8–9 layers of sperm cells, and restorative impacts on the reproductive system by normalizing testosterone levels within the testicles and restoring the structure of testicular tissue in response to oxidative stress caused by obesity (Iqbal et al., 2019a; 2022b).

---

Conclusion

This study highlighted the potential use of five medicinal plants to improve the reproductive efficiency of male laboratory animals. This article critically reviews the effects of these medicinal plants, proposed for use in the prevention and treatment of infertility in animals. Most medicinal plant extracts contain major bioactive components, including phenolic compounds, vitamins, and various antioxidants. Many medicinal plants have positive effects on spermatogenesis, sperm parameters (including sperm motility, viability, and sperm count), increasing the number of Leydig cells, increasing sperm concentration and motility in the ejaculate volume, and reducing abnormal sperm. Effective mechanisms for improving or treating reproductive efficiency using these medicinal plants include: Anti–oxidant activities, androgenic activity, and the effect of these plant extracts on hormone levels, increased levels of antioxidant enzymes, and reduced MDA and lipid peroxidation products. Many studies have proven the effectiveness of these medicinal plants in treating and improving the reproductive performance of animals. It can be concluded that there are few studies on the use of these medicinal plants in improving and treating the reproductive performance of laboratory animals. However, these medicinal plants are capable of improving fertility and could be a solution to improve poor reproductive performance in humans in the future due to their antioxidant effectiveness. Thus, more laboratory and clinical trials are needed to determine the effective dose and duration of treatment with these herbal medicines and to determine the side effects that may occur when using these medicinal plants.

---

Acknowledgments

The author extends her gratitude to the College of Biotechnology at Al–Qasim Green University.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Funding

This review article received no grant.

Authors' contributions

Prof. Dr. Nada S.N. AL–Taee was solely responsible for designing and conceiving the review, data collection, and statistical analysis of the results. The author drafted and critically reviewed the manuscript for intellectual content and approved the final version for submission. All aspects of the work reflect the sole contribution of the author.

Data availability

The datasets created analyzed during the review are available online.

---

References

Abdel–Rahman, H.A., EI–Bey, M.S., AIQorawi, A.A. and Ei Mougy, S.A. 2000. The relationship between semen quality and mineral composition in ram breeds. Small. Ruminant. Res. 38(1), 45–49.

Abdraboua, M.I., Elleithy, E.M.M., Yasin, N.A.E., Shaheen, Y.M. and Galal, M. 2019. Ameliorative effects of Spirulina maxima and Allium sativum on lead acetate induced testicular injury in male albino rats with respect to caspase–3 gene expression. Acta. Histochemica. 121(2), 198–206.

Abu–Khudir, R., Badr, G.M., El–Moaty, H.I.A., Hamad, R.S., Al Abdulsalam, N.K. and Abdelrahem, A.S.A. 2023. Garden cress seed oil abrogates testicular oxidative injury and NF–kB–mediated inflammation in diabetic mice. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 24(20), 15478.

Akdoğan, M., Nasır, Y., Cengiz, N. and Bilgili, A. 2018. The effects of milled Tribulus terrestris, Avena sativa, and white ginseng powder on total cholesterol, free testosterone levels and testicular tissue in rats fed a high–cholesterol die. Ankara Univ. Vet. Fak. Derg. 65(3), 267–272.

Alalwany, E.A.H., Altaee, N.S.N., Al–Khamas, A.J.H. and Rashid, K.H. 2021. Histological changes in the testes, epididymis and seminal vesicles of adult male rabbits treated with garden cress (Lepidium sativum L.) seeds phenolic extract. Biochem. Cell. Arch. 21(1), 2079–2083.

Al–Aubody, N.M. 2024. The role of Lepidium sativum as free radical scavenger in laboratory mice. Kerbala. J. Pharm. Sci. 14(23), 125–131.

Al–Bekairi, A.M., Shahm, A.H. and Qureshi, S. 1990. Effect of Allium sativum on epididymal spermatozoa, estradiol–treated mice and general toxicity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 29(2), 117–125.

Alemayehu SF Forsido. and Tola E Amare. 2023. Review article nutritional and phytochemical composition and associated health benefits of oat (Avena sativa) grains and oat–based fermented food products. Sci. World J. 17(1), 2730175.

Ali, M.M. and Banana, H.J. 2020. Effect of adding n–acetylcystiene and Avena sativa extract to tris extender on post–cryopreservative semen characteristics of holstein bulls. Plant Arch. 20(1), 1209–1216.

Aliakbari, F., Gilani, M.A.S., Amidi, F., Baazm, M., Korouji, M., Izadyar, F., Yazdekhasti, H. and Abbasi, M. 2016. Improving the efficacy of cryopreservation of spermatogonia stem cells by antioxidant supplements. Cell. Reprogram. 18(2), 87–95.

Aljamal, A., Al Shawabkeh, M., Abualbasal, M., Alqadi, T., Delmani, F.A. and Khwaldeh, A. 2023. Effects of celery leaf aqueous extract on fertility and liver enzyme in diabetic male rats. Egypt. Acad. J. Biolog. Sci. 15(2), 131–138.

AL–Mamoori, N.A.H. and AL–Taee, N.S.N. 2020. Effects of cement dust on electrolytes and osmolality in serum and urine of Kufa cement factory workers. Indian J. Forensic Med. Toxicol. 14(3), 1605–1609.

Al–Snafi, A.E. 2015. Chemical constituents and pharmacological importance of Agropyron repens–a review. RJPT 1(2), 37–41.

Al-Taee, N.S.N. 2018. Physiological blood parameters of young university adults with blood glucose, blood pressure and smokers. Indian. J. Public. Health. Res. Dev. 9(11), 481–487.

Al-Taee, N.S.N. 2019a. Physiological aspects of osmolality and cations of young university adults suffer from blood glucose, blood pressure and smokers. Indian. J. Public. Health. Res. Dev. 10(6), 105–110.

Al–Taee, N.S.N. 2019b. Physiological importance of minerals in fertility of women: comparison of pregnant women’s minerals in urban and rural areas. Med-Leg. Update. 19(2), 373–378.

Amidi, F., Ebrahimi, S., Abbasi, M., Yazdani, M. and Ghasemi, S. 2014. Effects of saffron extract on sperm parameters in rats with experimentally induced varicocele. J. Qazvin Univ. Med. Sci. 18(5), 4–11.

Amidi, F., Pazhohan, A., Shabani Nashtaei, M., Khodarahmian, M. and Nekoonam, S. 2016. The role of antioxidants in sperm freezing: a review. Cell Tissue Bank 17(4), 745–756.

Arzanlou, M. and Bohlooli, S. 2010. Introducing of green garlic plant as a new source of allicin. Food. Chem. 120(1), 179–183.

Asadi–Samani, M., Rafieian–Kopaei, M. and Gundelia, A.N. 2013. A systematic review of medicinal and molecular perspective. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 16(21), 1238–1247.

Asadpour, R., Azari, M., Hejazi, M., Tayefi, H. and Zaboli, N. 2013. Protective effects of garlic aquous extract (Allium sativum), vitamin E, and N–acetylcysteine on reproductive quality of male rats exposed to lead. Vet. Res. Forum. 4(4), 251–257.

Asi, F.R., Khosravi, M., Hajikhani, R., Solati, J. and Fahimi, H. 2021. Complementary effects of coenzyme Q10 and Lepidium sativum supplementation on the reproductive function of mice: an experimental study. IJRM 19(7), 607–618.

Atanasov, A.G., Waltenberger, B., Pferschy-Wenzig, E.M., Linder, T., Wawrosch, C., Uhrin, P., Temml, V., Wang, L., Schwaiger, S., Heiss, E.H., Rollinger, J.M., Schuster, D., Breuss, J.M., Bochkov, V., Mihovilovic, M.D., Kopp, B., Bauer, R., Dirsch, V.M. and Stuppner, H. 2015. Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant–derived natural products: a review. Biotechnol. Adv. 33(8), 1582–1614.

Bahrami, K.H., Mahjor, A.A., Johary, H., Bahrami, R. and Bahrami, A. 2014. Comparative study on histopatological and histo–morphometric effect of raw and cooked garlic on spermatogenesis in testis and epidydims of rats. J. Fasa Univ. Med. Sci. 3(4), 371–379.

Bhattarai, G. and Shi, A. 2021. Research advances and prospects of spinach breeding, genetics, and genomics. Veg. Res. 1(9), 1–18.

Block, E. 1992. The organosulfur chemistry of the genus Allium implications for the organic chemistry of sulfur. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 31(9), 1135–1178.

Borek. 2001. Antioxidant health effects of aged garlic extract. J. Nutr. 131(3s), 1010–1015.

Breitbart, E., Lomnitski, L., Nyska, A., Malik, Z., Bergman, M., Sofer, Y., Haseman, J.K. and Grossman, S. 2001. Effects of water–soluble antioxidant from spinach, NAO, on doxorubicin–induced heart injury. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 20(7), 337–345.

Carmia, B. 2001. Antioxidant health effects of aged garlic extract. J. Nutr. 131(3s), 1010S–1015S.

Chakrabarti, K., Pal, A. and Bhattacharyya, A.K. 2003. Sperm immobilization activity of Allium sativum L. and other plant extracts. Asian J. Androl. 5(2), 131–5.

Clemens, R. and Van Klinken, B.J.W. 2014. Oats, more than just a whole grain: an introduction. Br. J. Nutr. 112(S2), S1–S3.

Dashti–Rahmatabadi, M.H., Nahangi, H., Oveisi, M. and Anvari, M. 2012. The effect of saffron decoction consumption on pregnant mice and their offspring. J. Shahid. Sadoughi. Univ. Med. Sci. 19(6), 831–837.

Datta, P.K., Diwakar, B.T., Viswanatha, S., Murthy, K.N. and Naidu, K.A. 2011. Safety evaluation studies on garden cress (Lepidium sativum L.) seeds in Wistar rats. Int. J. Appl. Res. Nat. Prod. 4(1), 37–43.

Ekuma, B.O., Amaduruonye, W., Onunkwo, D.N. and Herbert, U. 2017. Influence of garlic (Allium sativum) and vitamin E on semen characteristics, reproductive performance and histopathology of rabbit bucks. Nig. J. Anim. Prod. 44(3), 117–128.

El–Amary, H.H. and Abou–Warda, M.A. 2007. Effect of different levels of garlic and leek as additives to rabbit rations on production and reproductive performance. J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura Univ. 32(12), 9832–9843.

El–Amir, Y.O., Yahia, D. and Yousef, M.S. 2019. Protective effect of avenanthramides against cisplatin induced testicular degeneration in rats. J. Adv. Vet. Res. 9(1), 14–22.

El-Kelawy, H., Mansour, M., El-Naggar, R. and Elkassas, N. 2020. Effect of garlic (Allium sativum) on hematological, biochemical, hormonal and fertility parameters of male bouscat rabbits. Egypt. J. Rabbit. Sci. 30(1), 43.

El–Kholy, K.H., Wafa, W.M., El–Nagar, H.A., Aboelmagd, A.M. and El-Ratel, I.T. 2021. Physiological response, testicular function, and health indices of rabbit males fed diets containing phytochemicals extract under heat stress conditions. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 8(2), 256–265.

Elmahdi, B., El–Bahr, S.M. and Abdelghany, A.M. 2014. Effect of dietary supplementation of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum–graecum L.) on selected biochemical parameters of rats fed high cholesterol diet: profiles of lipid and lipoproteins. SYLWAN 158(5), 399–420.

El–Shafey, A.A., Ali, E.A. and Mazrook, E.A. 2009. Effect of garlic oil on hematological parameters, blood respiratory function and serum testosterone in male rat's exposure to an electromagnetic field. Isotope. Rad. Res. 41(2), 397–410.

Faghani, M., Mohammadghasemi, F. and Keiahi, G. 2013. Study of the protective effect of Lepidium sativum on spermatogenesis in diabetic rat testis induced by streptozocin. J. Babol Univ. Med. Sci. 15(2), 38–44.

Fazala, S.S., Ansarib, M.M., Singlac, R.K. and Khand, S. 2012. Isolation of 3–n–Butyl Phthalide and Sedanenolide from Apium graveolens Linn. IGJPS 2(3), 258–261.

Fu, H., Xie, B., Ma, S., Zhu, X., Fan, G. and Pan, S. 2011. Evaluation of antioxidant activities of principal carotenoids available in water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica). J. Food Comp. Anal. 24(2), 288–297.

Gerster, H. 1993. Anticarcinogenic effect of common carotenoids. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 63(2), 93–121.

Ghafil, J.S. and Al-Taee N.S.N. 2020. Effect of garlic and celery extracts on lead toxicity in male mice. Medico-legal Update. 20(2), 614–618.

Ghalehkandi, J.G. 2014. Garlic (Allium sativum) juice protects from semen oxidative stress in male rats exposed to chromium chloride. Anim. Reprod. 11(4), 526–532.

Halima, N.B., Slima, A.B., Moalla, I., Fetoui, H., Pichon, C., Gdoura, R. and Abdelkafi, S. 2014. Protective effects of oat oil on deltamethrin–induced reprotoxicity in male mice. Food Funct. 5(9), 2070–2077.

Hammami, I. and El May, M.V. 2013a. Impact of garlic feeding (Allium sativum) on male fertility: review. Andrologia 45(4), 217–224.

Hamza, A.A. and Amin, A. 2007. Apium graveolens modulates sodium valproate–induced reproductive toxicity in rats. J. Exp. Zool. Part A 307(4), 199–206.

Hardani, A., Afzalzadeh, M.R., Amirzargar, A., Mansouri, E. and Meamar, Z. 2015. Effects of aqueous extract of celery (Apium graveolens L.) leaves on spermatogenesis in healthy male rats. Avicenna J. Phytomed. 5(2), 111.

Hassanein, K.M.A. and El–Amir, Y.O. 2017. Protective effects of thymoquinone and avenanthramides on titanium dioxide nanoparticles induced toxicity in Sprague–Dawley rats. Pathol. Res. Pract. 213(1), 13–22.

Helal, M.A.M. 2014. Celery oil modulates DEHP–induced reproductive toxicity in male rats. Reprod. Biol. 14(3), 182–189.

Hfaiedh, N., Jean–Claude, M. and Elfeki, A. 2011. Protective effects of garlic (Allium sativum) extract upon lindane–induced oxidative stress and related damages in testes and brain of male rats. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 100(2), 187–192.

Ibraheem, S.R., Ibraheem, M.R. and Hashim, S.S. 2017. Effect of Lepidium sativum aqueous crude extract in some fertility parameters in mice. Int. J. Sci. Res. 6(9), 260–266.

Ihsan, M., Nazir, N., Ghafoor, A., Khalil, A., Zahoor, M., Nisar, M., Khames, A., Ullah, R. and Shah, A. 2021. Genetic diversity in local and exotic Avena sativa L. (oat) germplasm using multivariate analysis. Agronom 11(9), 1713–1731.

Iqbal, S., Ali, S. and Siddiqui, A. 2019. Antioxidant effects of spinach on intra–testicular testosterone levels in obese rats. Adv. Med. Sci. 3(2), 67–72.

Iqbal, S., Sadiq, N., Siddiqui, S. and Iqbal, H. 2020. Ameliorative effects of Spinacia oleracea on sperm morphology, count, and motility by normalizing the obesity induced oxidative stress in Sprague Dawley rats. J. Fatima Jinnah Med. Univ. 14(3), 124–127.

Jambor, T., Arvay, J., Tvrda, E., Kovacik, A., Greifova, H. and Lukac, N. 2021. The effect of Apium graveolens L., Levisticum officinale and Calendula officinalis L. on cell viability, membrane integrity, steroidogenesis, and intercellular communication in mice Leydig cells in vitro. Physiol. Res. 70(4), 615–625.

Jambor, T., Zajickova, T., Arvay, J., Ivanisova, E., Tirdilova, I., Knizatova, N., Greifova, H., Kovacik, A., Galova, E. and Lukac, N. 2022. Exceptional properties of Lepidium sativum L. extract and its impact on cell viability, ROS production, steroidogenesis, and intracellular communication in mice Leydig cells _{in vitro}. Mol 27(16), 5127.

Jinan, S.G. and Al–Taee, N.S.N. 2020. Effect of garlic and celery extracts on lead toxicity in male mice. Med-Leg. Update. 20(2), 614–618.

Kamani, M., Hosseini, E.S., Kashani, H.H., Atlasi, M.A. and Nikzad, H. 2017. Protective effect of Lepidium sativum seed extract on histopathology and morphology of epididymis in diabetic rat model. Int. J. Morphol. 35(2), 603–610.

Kerishchi, K.P. and Nasri, S. 2014. The effect of Apium graveolens hydro–alcoholic seed extract on sperm parameters and serum testosterone concentration in Mice. Armaghane–danesh 19(7), 592–601.

Khaki, A., Farzadi, L., Ahmadi, S. and Ghadamkheir, E. 2011. Recovery of spermatogenesis by Allium cepa in Toxoplasma gondii infected rats. Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 5(7), 903–907.

Kharkwa, N., Prasad, R.V. and Kumar, S. 2021. Physico–chemical characterisation of Lepidium sativum (garden cress) GA–1 seed. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 10(2), 1373–1377.

Kholy, K., Wafa, W., Nagar, H., Aboelmagd, A. and Ratel, I. 2021. Physiological response, testicular function, and health indices of rabbit males fed diets containing phytochemicals extract under heat stress conditions. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 8(2), 256–265.

Kianbakht, S. and Huseini, H.F. 2012. Study on effects of chicory (Cichorium intybus L.), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and dill (Anethum graveolens L.) on fertility and neonatal gender in rats. J. Med. Plants. 11(9), 192–196.

Kim, K.M., Chun, S.B., Koo, M.S., Choi, W.J., Kim, T.W., Kwon, Y.G., Chung, H.T., Billiar, T.R. and Kim, Y.M. 2001. Differential regulation of NO availability from macrophages and endothelial cells by the garlic component S–allyl cysteine. Free. Radic. Biol. Med. 30(7), 747–756.

Kitajima, J., Ishikawa, T. and Satoh, M. 2003. Polar constituents of celery seed. Phytochem 64(5), 1003–1011.

Kooti, W., Ghasemiboroon, M., Ahangarpoor, A., Hardani, A., Amirzargar, A., Asadi-Samani, M. and Zamani, M. 2014b. The effect of hydro–alcoholic extract of celery on male rats in fertility control and sex ratio of rat offspring. J. Babol Univ. Med. Sci. 16(4), 43–49.

Kooti, W., Ghasemiboroon, M., Asadi–Samani, M., Ahangarpoor, A., Zamani, M., Amirzargar, A. and Hardani, A. 2014a. The effect of halcoholic extract of celery leaves on the delivery rate (fertilization and stillbirths), the number, weight and sex ratio of rat off spring. Adv. Environ. Biol. 8(10), 824–830.

Kooti, W., Mansouri, E., Ghasemiboroon, M., Harizi, M. and Amirzargar, A. 2014c. Protective effects of celery (Apium graveolens) on testis and cauda epididymal spermatozoa in rat. Iran. J. Reprod. Med. 12(5), 365–366.

Kooti, W., Mansouri, E., Ghasemiboroon, M., Harizi, M., Ashtary-Larky, D. and Afrisham, R. 2014d. The effects of hydroalcoholic extract of Apium graveolens leaf on the number of sexual cells and testicular structure in rat. Jundishapur J. Nat. Pharm. Prod. 9(4), e17532.

Kooti, W., Moradi, M., Peyro, K., Sharghi, M., Alamiri, F., Azami, M., Firoozbakht, M. and Ghafourian, M. 2018. The effect of celery (Apium graveolens L.) on fertility: a systematic review. J. C. I. M. 15(2), 20160141.

Kumar, A., Chowdhury, S., Mukherjee, R., Naskar, A., Singhal, T., Kumar, D. and Kumar, V. 2022. Evaluation of antimicrobial, anti–inflammatory and wound healing potentiality of various Indian small herbs: a meta–analysis. J. R. A. S. B. 1(3), 21–32.

Liu, Z., She, H., Xu, Z., Zhang, H., Li, G., Zhang, S. and Qian, W. 2021. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis of leaf related traits in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.). BMC. Plant. Biol. 21(290), 1–14.

Lomnitski, L., Bergman, M., Nyska, A., Ben-Shaul, V. and Grossman, S. 2003. Composition, efficacy and safety of spinach extracts. Nutr. Cancer 46, 222–231.

Lotfi, F., Ziamajidi, N., Abbasalipourkabir, R., Goodarzi, M.T. and Asl, S.S. 2021. Impacts of garlic extract on testicular oxidative stress and sperm characteristics in type 1 and 2 diabetic rats: an experimental study. Int. J. Reprod. BioMed. 19(10), 929–942.

Mansouri, E., Ghasemiboroon, M., Harizi, M. and Amirzargar, A. 2014. Protective effects of celery (Apium graveolens) on testis and cauda epididymal spermatozoa in rat. Iran. J. Reprod. Med. 12(5), 365–366.

Madkour, N.K. 2012. Beneficial role of celery oil in lowering of di (2–ethylhexyl) phthalate–induced testicular damage. Toxicol. Ind. Health 30(9), 861–872.

Mali, R.G., Mahajan, S.G. and Mehta, A.A. 2007. Lepidium sativum (Garden cress): a review of contemporary literature and medicinal properties. Orient. Pharm. Exp. Med. 7(4), 331–335.

Malviya, N., Jain, S., Gupta, V.B. and Vyas, S. 2011. Recent studies on aphrodisiac herbs for the management of male sexual dysfunction–a review. Acta. Pol. Pharm. 68(1), 3–8.

Matboo, F. and Modaresi, M. 2016. The effects of hydro–alcoholic extract of spinach on pituitary–gonadal axis in male mice. Der. Pharma. Chemica. 8(1), 404–407.

Mbegbu, E.C., Odo, R.I., Ozioko, P.T., Awachie, M.E., Nwobi, L.G. and Obidike, I.R. 2021. Aqueous Allium sativum (garlic) extract ameliorates cadmium chloride–induced alter–ations in blood formation and spermatogenesis in albino rats. Trop. J. Pharm. Res. 20(3), 621–626.

Miyamoto, T., Tsujimura, A., Miyagawa, Y., Koh, E., Namiki, M. and Sengoku, K. 2012. Male infertility and its causes in human. Adv. Urol. 33(3), 483–487.

Mohammadi, F., Nikzad, H., Taherian, A., Mahabadi, J.A. and Salehi, M. 2013. Effects of herbal medicine on male infertility. A. S. J. 10(4), 3–16.

Musavi, H., Tabnak, M., Alaei Sheini, F., Hasanzadeh Bezvan, M., Amidi, F. and Abbasi, M. 2018. Effect of garlic (Allium sativum) on male fertility: a systematic review. J. Herbmed. Pharmacol. 7(4), 306–312.

Mushtaq, A. and Mehfuza, H. 2014. A review on oat (Avena sativa L.) as a dual–purpose crop. Sci. Res. Essays. 9(4), 52–59.

Naji, N.S. and Abood, F.N. 2013. Effect of tocopherol extraction of Lepidium sativum seeds in sperm parameters of white male rabbits. J. Biol. Agric. Health 3(8), 43–49.

Naji, N.S. and Shumran, F.M. 2013. The effects of tocopherol extraction from Lepidium sativum seeds on the histology of testis, epididymis, and seminal vesicles of adult male rabbits. J. Biol. Agric. Health. 3(6), 97–100.

Nasr, A.Y. 2017. The impact of aged garlic extract on Adriamycin induced testicular changes in adult male Wistar rats. Acta. Histochemica. 119(6), 648–662.

Nelson, R.J., Dark, J. and Zucker, I. 1983. Influence of photoperiod, nutrition and water availability on reproduction of male California voles (Microtus californicus). J. Reprod. Fertil. 69, 473–477.

Oi, Y., Imafuku, M., Shishido, C., Kazuo, I., Yutaka, K. and Syoji, N. 2001. Garlic supplementation increases testicular testosterone and decreases plasma corticosterone in rats fed a high protein diet. J. Nut. 131(8), 2150–2156.

Okoro, V.M.O., Mbajiorgu, C.A. and Mbajiorgu, E.F. 2016. Semen quality characteristics of Koekoek breeder cocks influenced by supplemental inclusion levels of onion and garlic mixture at 35–41 weeks of age. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 45(8), 433–440.

Ola-Mudathir, K.F., Suru, S.M., Fafunso, M.A., Obioha, U.E. and Faremi, T.Y. 2008. Protective roles of onion and garlic extracts on cadmium–induced changes in sperm characteristics and testicular oxidative damage in rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 46(12), 3604–3611.

Olojo, S., Rekwot, P., Olobatoke, R., Uchenna, S. and Jolayemi, K. 2022. Effects of Allium sativum and Allium cepa on semen characteristics, sperm reserves and haematology of rabbit bucks. J. Vet. Sci. 20(Special), 15–27.

Osonuga, I., Faponle, A., Ezima, E., Adenowo, T. and Adelegan, A. 2020. Effect of aqueous extract of Allium sativum (garlic) on fertility in male Wistar rats. Ann. Health Res. 6(1), 100–107.

Ouarda, M. and Abdennour, C. 2011. Evaluation of the therapeutic efficiency of raw garlic on reproduction of domestic rabbits under lead induced toxicity. Ann. Biol. Res. 2(3), 38993.

Painuli, S., Quispe, C., Herrera-Bravo, J., Semwal, P., Martorell, M., Almarhoon, Z.M., Seilkhan, A., Ydyrys, A., Rad, J.S., Alshehri, M.M., Daştan, S.D., Taheri, Y., Calina, D. and Cho, W.C. 2022. Nutraceutical profiling, bioactive composition, and biological applications of Lepidium sativum L. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 1(1), 2910411.

Peterson, D.M. 2001. Oat antioxidants. J. Cereal. Sci. 33(2), 115–129.

Popović, M., Kaurinović, B., Trivić, S., Mimica‐Dukić, N. and Bursać, M. 2006. Effect of celery (Apium graveolens) extracts on some biochemical parameters of oxidative stress in mice treated with carbon tetrachloride. Phytotherapy Res. 20(7), 531–537.

Rasane, P., Jha, A., Sabikhi, L., Kumar, A. and Unnikrishnan, V.S. 2015. Nutritional advantages of oats and opportunities for its processing as value added foods–a review. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 52(2), 662–675.

Rezaeian, Z., Yazdekhasti, H., Nasri, S., Rajabi, Z., Fallahi, P. and Amidi, F. 2016. Effect of selenium on human sperm parameters after freezing and thawing procedures. Asian Pac. J. Reprod. 5(6), 462–466.

Roberts, J.L. and Moreau, R. 2016. Functional properties of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) phytochemicals and bioactives. Food. Funct. 7(8), 3337–3353.

Ryan, D., Kendall, M. and Robards, K. 2007. Bioactivity of oats as it relates to cardiovascular disease. Nut. Res. Rev. 20(2), 147–162.

Saed, Z.J.M., Mohammed, T.T. and Farhan, S.M. 2018. Effect of ginger and celery seeds as feed additives on reproductive performance of broiler breeder males. Plant. Arch. 18(2), 1823–1829.

Sajitha, G.R., Jose, R., Andrews, A., Ajantha, K.G., Augustine, P. and Augusti, K.T. 2010. Garlic oil and vitamin e prevent the adverse effects of lead acetate and ethanol separately as well as in combination in the drinking water of rats. Indian J. Clin. Biochem. 25(3), 280–288.

Saka, V.P., Challa, S.R. and Raju, A.B. 2016. Effect of Avena sativa (Oats) on spermatogenesis and reproductive health. J. Endocrinol. Reprod. 20(2), 83–92.

Salah, M.M., Abdul–Lattif, R.F. and Sabrei, D.A. 2014. Physiological and histological effect of aqueous and alcoholic extract of Garlic (Allium sativum) on testicular function of albino male mice treated with lead acetate. JOBRC 8(2), 41–48.

Salehi, B., Tumer, T.B., Ozleyen, A., Peron, G., Dall’Acqua, S., Rajkovic, J., Naz, R. and Nosheen, A. 2019. Review: plants of the genus Spinacia: From bioactive molecules to food and phytopharmacological applications. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 88, 260–273.

Salem, N.A. and Salem, E.A. 2016. Protective antioxidant efficiency of garlic against lead induced renal and testicular toxicity in adult male rats. J. Heavy. MetTox. Dis. 1(3), 5.

Shaarawy, S.M., Tohamy, A.A., Elgendy, S.M., Elmageed, Z.Y.A., Bahnasy, A., Mohamed, M.S., Kandil, E. and Matrougui, K. 2009. Protective effects of garlic and silymarin on NDEA–induced rats hepatotoxicity. Int. J. Biol. Sci. 5(6), 549–557.

Shah, M.B., Dudhat, V.A. and Gadhvi, K.V. 2021. Lepidium sativum: a potential functional food. J. Ayu. Her. Med. 7(2), 140–149.

Shalaby, M.A. and El Zorba, H.Y. 2010. Protective effect of celery oil, vitamin E and their combination against testicular toxicity in male rats. Glob. Vet. 5(2), 122–128.

Shinkut, M., Rekwot, P.I., Nwannenna, I.A. and Bugau, J.S. 2016. Spermiogram of rabbit bucks fed diets supplemented with Allium sativum (garlic). IOSR-JAVS 9(2), 20–26.

Sikka, S.C. 1996. Oxidative stress and role of antioxidants in normal and abnormal sperm function. Front. Biosci. 1(1), e78–e86.

Singh, R., De, S. and Belkheir, A. 2013. Avena sativa (Oat), a potential neutraceutical and therapeutic agent: an overview. Crit. Rev. Food. Sci. Nutr. 53(2), 126–144.

Sisodia, R., Yadav, R.K., Sharma, K.V. and Bhatia, A.L. 2008. Spinacia oleracea modulates radiation–induced bio–chemical changes in mice testis. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 70(3), 320–326.

Soleimanzadeh, A., Mohammadnejad, L. and Ahmadi, A. 2018. Ameliorative effect of Allium sativum extract on busulfan–induced oxidative stress in mice sperm. Vet. Res. Forum. 9(3), 265–271.

Soto, F.R.M., Vuaden, E.R., Coelho, C.D.P., Bonamin, L.V., De Azevedo, S.S. and Benites, N.R. 2009. Effect of Avena sativa CH6 in the metabolism of diluted semen of swine. Vet. Zootec. 16(2), 367–372.

Sultana, S., Ahmed, S., Jahangir, T. and Sharma, S. 2005. Inhibitory effect of celery seeds extract on chemically induced hepatocarcinogenesis: modulation of cell proliferation, metabolism and altered hepatic foci development. Cancer Lett. 221(1), 11–20.

Verma. and S. 2018. A study on medicinal herb Spinacia oleraceae linn: amaranthaceae. J. Drug. Deliv. Ther. 8(4), 59–61.

Wahba, H.M.A. 2011. Protective effect of Nigella sativa, linseed and celery oils against testicular toxicity induced by sodium valproate in male rats. J. Am. Sci. 7(5), 687–693.

Yadav, R.K. 2016. Evaluation of antioxidant activities of Spinacia oleracea extract on the sensitivity of spermatogonia against radiation induced oxidative stress in Swiss albino mice. Paripex Indian .J. Res. 5(9), 343–344.

Yao, R., Liu, H., Wang, J., Shi, S., Zhao, G. and Zhou, X. 2024. Cytological structures and physiological and biochemical characteristics of covered oat (Avena sativa L.) and naked oat (Avena nuda L.) seeds during high–temperature artificial aging. BMC Plant Biol. 24(1), 530–541.

Yassir, R.A. and Al–Taee, N.S.N. 2022. Effect of phenolic extract of Avena sativa seeds on sperm parameters and reproductive organs of male albino mice. A M J 62(08), 3823–3830.

Yassir, R.A., Al–Taee, N.S.N. and Jaber, A.H. 2023. The medium effect dose of oat seeds extracts in sperm parameters and testosterone hormone of adult male mice. A. M. J. 63(01), 8573–8579.

Yuriko, O., Mika, I., Chiaki, S., Kazuo, I., Yutaka, K. and Syoji, N. 2001. Garlic supplementation increases testicular testosterone and decreases plasma corticosterone in rats fed a high protein diet. J. Nutr. 131 (8), 2150–2156.

Zargari. 1996. Medicinal plants. Tehran: tehran Univ. Pub. Tehran: Tehran Univ. Pub. p: 243.